Crime Scene Investigation vs. Forensic Science

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesCrime Scene Investigation vs. Forensic Science

Those who wish to work on the proverbial front lines of criminal justice, handling and analyzing physical evidence related to criminal actions, might pursue either a degree in crime scene investigation or forensic science. And, to be sure, a university or college-level degree in one of these fields can be an excellent first step.

While their responsibilities distinguish these jobs, forensic scientist and CSI careers are predicted to be in demand in the coming years. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that between 2023 and 2033, both professions will grow faster than or almost on par with the national rate for all occupations (4 percent).

Police and detective careers are estimated to grow by 4 percent, adding 28,700 new positions between 2023 and 2033 (BLS 2024). By comparison, forensic science technician jobs will increase by 14 percent, creating 2,500 fresh forensic tech CSI openings in the same decade (BLS 2024).

Most entry-level positions for police and detectives have a criminal justice focus and require completion of police academy training or a two-year degree or four-year degree for certain positions. On the other hand, entry-level positions in forensic science require a bachelor’s degree in natural science and some coursework in criminal justice.

But before picking one over the other, it is crucial to fully understand the similarities, differences, and overlaps between these two careers. In light of this, below, you will find a brief overview of degrees in crime scene investigation and forensic science and a side-by-side comparison of requirements, work environment, and other details for each profession.

Similarities, Differences, and Overlap

To begin, it is imperative to understand the similarities between these two fields of study. Both degrees will allow graduates to work in the criminal justice field, and both are focused specifically on the aftermath of a crime. Indeed, the ultimate objective of crime scene investigators and of forensic scientists is aligned: to help enact justice by gathering and analyzing evidence, then presenting that evidence in court (either as an expert witness or via attorneys) to uncover the truth.

Outside of this overarching goal, however, the two fields of study begin to diverge. While the education of a crime scene investigator may include some science courses, an aspiring forensic scientist should expect to take a heavy load of science courses, including biology, chemistry, and physics, to prepare for the forensic analysis process.

Furthermore, because forensic scientists largely operate in a lab setting, a significant portion of their education will be in a lab. In contrast, because crime scene investigators spend most of their time in the field, a CSI degree focuses more on investigative procedures and criminal investigation with much less lab time.

A crime scene investigator is often one of the first professionals at a crime scene (after first responders), tasked with examining the location and gathering evidence relevant to the investigation, including photographs and physical evidence. This evidence is sent to a laboratory where a forensic scientist will analyze what has been provided using various scientific methods. Each of these professionals plays an integral role in the flow of an investigation in the criminal justice system.

Finally, it’s important to note that a crime scene investigator and a criminal investigator (or detective) are different. Indeed, the former gathers and analyzes information found at the crime scene, but once all necessary information is collected and analyzed from this specific location, his or her work concludes (unless they are called to testify in court). On the other hand, criminal investigators or detectives are responsible for carrying the full criminal investigation through to completion.

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Side-By-Side Comparison: Crime Scene Investigation vs. Forensic Science

Below you will find a side-by-side comparison of crime scene investigation and forensic science. Those interested in pursuing a degree in either field should use this as a convenient reference when deciding on a course of study.

	Crime Scene Investigator	Forensic Scientist
Scope of Profession	Crime scene investigation, like forensic science, focuses on utilizing scientific and social analysis techniques to assist law enforcement in uncovering all information about a crime. Crime scene investigators work at the scene of a crime, gathering any relevant evidence for later analysis.	Unlike crime scene investigators, forensic scientists do not visit the crime scene. Instead, they work in a lab environment, examining and analyzing evidence provided by investigators to help law enforcement agencies pursue justice.
Academic Topics Covered	Students in crime scene investigation programs will spend most of their education learning about collection techniques, evidence handling and storage, crime scene procedure, and criminal justice overall. These students will also likely take courses on law and legal philosophy, as well as lab-based science, although not nearly to the extent that those in a forensic science program do.	A student pursuing a degree in forensic science will inevitably be immersed in all varieties of lab-based science, including biology, chemistry, toxicology, pharmacology, and physics. Furthermore, these students will focus on other subjects related to criminal analysis, including chemistry and pathology, with a focus on forensics.
Typical Courses	Although the curriculum will vary depending on the institution, courses that a student of crime scene investigation will likely take include the following: Introduction to criminal justice Introduction to forensics Criminology Judicial process Corrections Crime scene photography and management Forensic fingerprint analysis Trace evidence analysis Violent crime scene analysis Criminal law and investigations Criminal justice ethics	The following is a sample list of classes that would likely be found in any undergraduate or graduate forensic science program: Biology (including cell biology, microbiology, and molecular biology) Chemistry (including biochemistry, physical chemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry, and quantitative chemistry) Physics Calculus Pharmacology Genetics Statistics Instrumental and forensic analysis Crime and society Forensic anthropology and pathology
Specializations	Crime scene investigation may be a standalone program, or may be housed within the degree of criminal justice, and considered a specialization or concentration area itself. In such cases, there would typically be no further specialization available.	In some programs, forensic science is often a greater criminal justice degree specialization. However, where forensic science is a standalone program, it will likely have a great emphasis on laboratory science, and students may have the opportunity to specialize in such fields as toxicology, DNA analysis, or even death investigation.In some programs, a student may also specialize in computer forensics and cybercrime, which may be a useful degree to obtain employment in some emerging occupations in the future.
Job Titles	Upon obtaining a degree in crime scene investigation (or a technician certificate), students will be prepared to work as crime scene investigators or technicians.	A degree in forensic science allows the holder to obtain employment as a forensic scientist, generally in a laboratory setting.
Work Environments	Crime scene investigators (and technicians) will work directly at the scene of the crime, analyzing the situation and gathering evidence relevant to the investigation. Because crime occurs at all hours of the day, investigators may remain on-call as determined by their employer. When not at a crime scene, these individuals may perform other tasks at a police station or other law enforcement agency.	Forensic scientists and technicians generally work in a lab setting, where they analyze the evidence provided by the crime scene investigation team. These scientists often have a routine schedule, unlike crime scene investigators. In some cases, forensic scientists or technicians may also work in morgues or a coroner’s office.
Degree Opportunities	Upon obtaining an undergraduate degree in crime scene investigation, a student may go on to pursue a master of science (MS) degree in the same field, or a graduate certificate, which can aid in obtaining employment with a greater amount of responsibility and associated pay.	After receiving a bachelor’s degree in forensic science, a student may continue on to obtain a graduate certificate, master’s degree, or a PhD in the same field. Those who pursue PhD programs will be better able to pursue future careers in teaching or research.Also, a student with an undergraduate degree in biology or another natural science may be well qualified to pursue a graduate degree in forensic science.
Responsibilities	Crime scene investigation technicians are also responsible for gathering evidence at the scene of a crime, although they work directly under the supervision of a crime scene investigator.The education requirements are generally lower for technicians than they are for investigators; indeed, a crime scene technician need only obtain a certificate in the field (instead of an undergraduate degree) before seeking employment.A crime scene technician will likely have a limited working knowledge of forensics, although he or she will be well versed in collection techniques, criminal procedure and law, and evidence handling and storage.	Forensic science technicians (also referred to as forensic lab technicians) are no different than forensic scientists; indeed, the Bureau of Labor Statistics categorizes all work performed by a forensic scientist as that of a forensic science technician.
Online Degree Programs	The following is a list of schools that offer online degree programs in crime scene investigation: Purdue University – Global (BS in criminal justice with crime scene investigation concentration) St. Petersburg College (AS in crime scene technology) National University (Graduate certificate in forensic and crime scene investigations)	The following is a list of schools that offer online degree programs in forensic science: Arizona State University (Online professional science master’s in forensic science) Stevenson University (Online master’s in forensic science) University of Central Florida (MS in forensic science)
Bottom Line	A degree in crime scene investigation is an excellent choice for an individual who wishes to work in the criminal justice field, especially at the scene of a crime.A student in this field can expect to take courses focusing on criminal procedure and evidence management and some courses in lab-based science.A graduate may find employment as a crime scene investigator, who works directly with law enforcement to help uncover all relevant information about a crime in the pursuit of justice.	Anyone wishing to work in the field of criminal justice by analyzing crime scene evidence provided by investigators should consider a degree in forensic science.Forensic science students should expect to take biology, chemistry, physics, pathology, and anthropology courses, many of which include labs.Forensic scientists (or forensic science technicians) generally work in a laboratory setting, handling and examining evidence and providing their findings to criminal detectives for further action, or testifying in a court of law.

Comparison of Salaries and Employment: Crime Scene Investigation vs. Forensic Science

As noted above, crime scene investigators and forensic science technicians are both growing professions. The table below compares the salaries of each profession, nation-wide, per the BLS (May 2023)—the latest data available as of March 2025:

	Detectives and criminal investigators	Forensic Science Technicians
Number employed	106,730	17,520
Average annual salary	$95,930	$71,540
10th percentile	$50,670	$41,410
25th percentile	$64,830	$54,480
50th percentile (median)	$91,100	$64,940
75th percentile	$116,170	$84,720
90th percentile	$154,360	$107,490

As with all statistics, the amounts can vary depending on the reporting entity. For example, PayScale, (March 2,025) which relies on employee-reported data, shows the following nationwide:

	Crime scene investigator	Forensic scientists
Number of professionals reporting	192	259
10th percentile	$41,000	$41,000
50th percentile (median)	$55,470	$57,274
90th percentile	$81,000	$88,000

The BLS reports the states with the highest number of employees in each profession are as follows:

Detectives and criminal investigators	Number employed
Texas	16,460
California	10,980
New York	9,030
Florida	6,010
Arizona	5,250

Forensic science technicians:	Number employed
California	2,390
Texas	2,220
Florida	2,030
Arizona	860
Virgina	700

As shown below, the states with the highest number of employees differs in many instances with those in which professionals in both fields earn the highest salaries:

Detectives and criminal investigators	Number employed	Annual average salary
Alaska	130	$121,770
Hawaii	430	$121,000
Maryland	980	$119,900
New York	9,030	$118,350
California	10,980	$115,910

Forensic science technicians	Number employed	Annual average salary
California	2,390	$98,400
Illinois	370	$95,750
Connecticut	130	$82,620
New York	590	$82,610
Massachusetts	120	$82,520

Rachel Drummond, MEd

Writer

Rachel Drummond has given her writing expertise to ForensicsColleges.com since 2019, where she provides a unique perspective on the intersection of education, mindfulness, and the forensic sciences. Her work encourages those in the field to consider the role of mental and physical well-being in their professional success.

Rachel is a writer, educator, and coach from Oregon. She has a master’s degree in education (MEd) and has over 15 years of experience teaching English, public speaking, and mindfulness to international audiences in the United States, Japan, and Spain. She writes about the mind-body benefits of contemplative movement practices like yoga on her blog, inviting people to prioritize their unique version of well-being and empowering everyone to live healthier and more balanced lives.

Fraud in Forensics: Six Cases of Abuse from the Criminal Justice System

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesFraud in Forensics: Six Cases of Abuse from the Criminal Justice System

There’s no shortage of crime-fighting TV shows where protagonists brandish the latest forensic science techniques. Whether it’s DNA testing, tool mark identification, bite mark measuring, or blood spatter analysis, it’s assumed that these methods are reliable, consistent, and valid measures of criminal activity. Of course, the evidence is available for experts with trained eyes and the proper equipment, but the science isn’t without fault.

Even those at the upper echelons of criminal justice have been found guilty of fraud in forensics. In 2015, the FBI admitted to decades of relying on faulty hair analysis in trials, a grave error in criminal proceedings. Among those convicted on fraudulent evidence are 32 defendants sentenced to death, 14 of whom have either died in prison or already been executed.

Overstating the utility of common forensic methods has serious consequences. In recent interviews with three prominent professors, ForensicsColleges.com explored the impact of a recent bombshell in the community: a September 2016 report from the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). The PCAST publication cast doubt on common forensics methods due to insufficient testing. It found that only single-source DNA had both of the requisite types of scientific validity: foundational (i.e., accurate in a controlled lab environment) and applied (i.e., applicable in a real-world context). While multiple-source DNA, fingerprinting, and other forensic methods may be useful, they require further testing to establish both foundational and applied validity. Notably, all three of the interviewed professors highly recommended a strong core of hard science courses to thrive in forensics careers.

While the future of forensics methods is beyond the scope of this article, it’s important to remember examples where the collection or processing of evidence has failed. This article explores six fascinating cases of fraud in forensics to underscore the importance of using scientifically valid and reliable methods in this growing career field.

Amanda Knox

On November 2, 2007, American college student Amanda Knox returned to her flat in Perugia, Italy. She found the bathroom she shared with her roommate, Meredith Kercher, covered in blood. The carnage disturbed Knox, who described her roommate as “neat and tidy.” Knox had spent the night with her boyfriend, Raffaele Sollecito, and she attempted to get into Kercher’s room, which was locked. Sollecito tried to force the door open and failed, prompting him to call the police.

Filomena Romanelli, the third roommate, returned home following a phone conversation with Knox. Fearing the flat had been robbed, Romanelli began rummaging around, unknowingly disturbing the crime scene. It was Romanelli who uncovered Kercher’s two cell phones in a garden nearby and she requested that the police break into Kercher’s room. After the police refused, Romanelli’s friend broke through the door to uncover Kercher’s bloody and partially naked body. Autopsy reports indicated that most of Kercher’s injuries—bruising and cuts near the genital region—were sustained as a result of being restrained during the sexual violence.

Both Knox and Sollecito were arrested and charged with Kercher’s murder due to trace amounts of Knox’s DNA found on the kitchen knife—the presumed murder weapon—and Sollecito’s DNA found on Kercher’s bra clasp. Once Meredith Kercher’s room was thoroughly searched, police uncovered fingerprints and DNA belonging to Rudy Guede, who had gone on a date with the victim the night of her murder. Still convinced of Knox and Sollecito’s guilt, the prosecution spun a narrative claiming the couple had partnered with Guede in Kercher’s murder.

During the June 2011 appeals trial, experts uncovered the numerous flaws in the forensic evidence levied against Knox and Sollecito. For example, the police didn’t wear caps or change gloves as they collected items, allowing cross-contamination of the objects in the room. Experts also noted that while the alleged murder weapon did contain trace amounts of Knox’s DNA, it was curiously free from the victim’s DNA.

On March 27, 2015, both Amanda Knox and Raffaele Sollecito were exonerated for the murder of Meredith Kercher.

OJ Simpson

On June 13, 1994, the bodies of Ron Goldman and the ex-wife of OJ Simpson, Nicole Brown, were found outside of Brown’s home. They’d been stabbed multiple times.

When detectives arrived at OJ Simpson’s home to inform him of the death of his ex-wife, they noticed blood on Simpson’s white Ford Bronco. Without a search warrant, Detective Mark Fuhrman jumped over the external wall and opened the gate for the other three detectives present, claiming they believed Simpson might have been injured, and went to investigate. While walking along the outside of the house, Mark Fuhrman uncovered a matching bloody glove to one found at the crime scene.

During the trial, all of the missteps of the forensic team came to light, including the possibility of evidence tampering (and obvious evidence mishandling), as well as the glaring absence of evidence security. The defense noted several items that had gone missing, including a vial of blood from OJ Simpson. Jurors, infuriated by evidence of racism within the LAPD, questioned whether the missing blood was a result of planted evidence on the part of the detectives. Furthermore, Simpson’s Bronco, which had been impounded at an LAPD facility, was entered at least twice without authorization.

OJ Simpson was found not guilty on October 3, 1995.

David Camm

On September 28, 2000, David Camm—a retired Indiana State Trooper—returned home to find his wife and two children dead of gunshot wounds. Camm believed his son was still alive and attempted CPR on the seven-year-old. When his son failed to respond, he called 911. Three days later, Camm was arrested for the deaths of his family. A state forensic analyst claimed that Camm’s t-shirt had been stained with the wife’s blood in patterns suggesting he was the perpetrator.

During Camm’s trial, the prosecution stated that Camm had dual motives: a $750,000 life insurance policy and alleged infidelity. On March 17, 2002, the jury found him guilty, and he was sentenced to 195 years in prison.

In 2004, the Indiana Court of Appeals overturned the conviction and ordered a new trial. The case caught a break in 2005 when the DNA of career criminal, Charles Boney, was matched to a sweatshirt at the scene of the crime. Boney’s history included attacking women. Boney ultimately claimed it was Camm who murdered the family. Camm was charged once again—this time as a co-conspirator with Boney.

In 2009, the convictions were reversed by the Indiana Supreme Court. During the third trial, the defense presented evidence that the initial blood splatter expert had falsified his credentials and had no history of working with blood splatters. Additionally, a Dutch forensic expert found Boney’s DNA under Kim Camm’s fingernails and her DNA on his sweatshirt, two pieces of evidence that sealed his conviction.

On October 24, 2015, after spending 13 years in prison for the deaths of his wife and two children, David Camm was acquitted and released.

Ford Heights Four

On May 11, 1978, newly engaged Carol Schmal and Lawrence Lionberg were found shot in the head. Schmal had been raped seven times. An eyewitness claimed to have seen Dennis Williams, Kenneth Adams, and Willie Rainge in the abandoned townhouses where the bodies of the victims were found. Another witness named Paula Gray—a woman with an IQ of 55 who would later recant her testimony, thereby facing perjury charges—added Verneal Jimerson to the attackers. A final eyewitness named Marvin Simpson came forward five days after the murders identifying four completely different men as the killers, but the police failed to investigate these claims. The “Ford Heights Four”—all black men—were tried by an all-white jury.

During the first trial in 1978, state serologist Michael Podlecki testified that at least one of the rapists had type A secretor blood, a trait shared with approximately 25 percent of the population. Podlecki also testified that both Williams and Adams tested positive for being type A secretors, an assertion later refuted by an independent forensic witness. When the prosecution presented hairs found in the back of Williams’s car, Podlecki claimed they were consistent with the victims. Williams, Adams, Rainge, and Gray all received harsh sentences. Jimerson was not initially convicted because Gray had withdrawn her testimony, although she later testified against him in a plea deal with the prosecutors and he was sentenced to death.

After various appeals and retrials, students from the Northwestern University Medill School of Journalism—including award-winning NPR journalist Laura Sullivan—presented new evidence in 1996. They uncovered Marvin Simpson’s genuine eyewitness account. Coupled with confessions from the murderers and DNA evidence, Williams, Adams, Rainge, and Jimerson were finally exonerated after 17 years in prison.

In 1999, the Ford Heights Four won $36 million in damages from Cook County—the largest settlement for a civil rights case in U.S. history.

Cameron Todd Willingham

On December 23, 1991, a fire ravaged Cameron Todd Willingham’s house, killing his two-year-old daughter and one-year-old twins, while Willingham escaped with minor burns. His wife had been out Christmas shopping, and despite her insistence that Willingham had never been abusive and had no motive for the crimes, he was arrested.

At the trial, James Grigson—a psychiatrist known as “Doctor Death” for frequently recommending the death penalty for defendants—was called as an expert witness. Grigson cited Willingham’s tattoo of a skull and serpent and some of his music posters as evidence that he was a sociopath. He did not perform a thorough psychiatric evaluation.

Furthermore, Johnny Webb, a jailhouse informant, testified against Willingham, claiming he had confessed to the arson leading to the murders. Webb would later recant his testimony, telling a reporter he was mistaken as a result of being on multiple medications for bipolar disorder. The recanted testimony was never reported to Willingham’s attorneys and the prosecution ultimately cited the statute of limitations.

Manuel Vasquez, a state deputy fire marshall, took the stand and testified to seeing “puddle configurations” (i.e., areas of rapid burning) suggesting the use of accelerants in the fire and indicating arson. Vasquez also had claimed that Willingham’s first and second-degree burns were most likely self-inflicted with the intent to avert suspicion. It wasn’t until many years later that investigators would attribute his wounds to Willingham being in the fire before the flashover (which is when the entire room suddenly ignites in flames). Willingham was found guilty and executed on February 17, 2004.

Acclaimed fire investigator and scientist Gerald Hurst found Vasquez’s claims to be dubious and stated that there was no evidence to suggest arson.

In 2010—after more than a year of renewed investigation and stiff opposition from embarrassed state authorities, including Governor Rick Perry—the Texas Forensic Science Commission led by Dr. Craig Beyler concluded that there was not ample evidence for arson and Vasquez’s testimony was “hardly consistent with a scientific mindset and was more characteristic of mystics or psychics.”

The Central Park Five Trial

While jogging in New York City’s Central Park on April 19, 1989, a 28-year-old investment banker named Trisha Meili was brutally assaulted. Found unconscious and barely alive, she became the center of one of the most infamous criminal cases in American history.

In this case, police arrested five teenagers: Kevin Richardson, Antron McCray, Yusef Salaam, Raymond Santana, and Korey Wise. Although there was no physical evidence linking these men to the crime, authorities subjected the boys to intense interrogations. Without their lawyers and parents present, these teenagers confessed under pressure, falsely implicating themselves and each other.

Despite retracting their confessions and maintaining their innocence, the Central Park Five were convicted in 1990 based primarily on these coerced statements. They spent between six to 13 years in prison for a crime they did not even commit.

In 2002, the case took a dramatic turn when Matias Reyes, a convicted serial rapist, confessed to the crime. DNA evidence confirmed his guilt, completely exonerating the five men. The truth revealed that Reyes had acted alone, exposing the grave errors in the original investigation and prosecution.

The wrongful convictions of the Central Park Five highlighted serious issues within the justice system. In 2014, New York City agreed to a $41 million settlement with the five men, acknowledging the profound miscarriage of justice they endured.

Conclusion: The Innocence Project

For aspiring forensics professionals, these documented abuses of the science are presented as cautionary tales. The collection and meticulous analysis of evidence aren’t easy processes and the techniques are still far from perfect. It’s worth noting that the federal government remains committed to keeping current processes in place.

Despite setbacks in the advancement of science, there are groups committed to exonerating falsely accused people with sound forensic evidence. For example, the Innocence Project aims “to free the staggering number of innocent people who remain incarcerated and to bring reform to the system responsible for their unjust imprisonment.” Founded in 1992 by Peter Neufeld and Barry Scheck, it has helped to free over 250 people on DNA evidence and identified several alternative perpetrators as of January 2025.

In short, forensic science depends not only on types of evidence with foundational and applied validity but also on the dedicated efforts of ethics-minded groups such as the Innocence Project. How many innocent people are serving sentences for crimes they didn’t commit? How many criminals are walking free due to untested rape kit backlogs? Forensic scientists can be part of the solution.

Jocelyn Blore

Chief Content Strategist

Jocelyn Blore is the chief content officer of Sechel Ventures and the co-author of the Women Breaking Barriers series. She graduated summa cum laude from UC Berkeley and traveled the world for five years. She also worked as an addiction specialist for two years in San Francisco. She’s interested in how culture shapes individuals and systems within societies—one of the many themes she writes about in her blog, Blore’s Razor (Instagram: @bloresrazor). She has served as managing editor for several healthcare websites since 2015.

How to Become a Forensic Pathologist – Steps & Requirements

Home Forensic Education Blog How to BecomeHow to Become a Forensic Pathologist – Steps & Requirements

At the intersection of medical and legal matters is where the work of a forensic pathologist begins. Known as “death detectives,” forensic pathologists are specially-trained physicians tasked with determining the cause of sudden, unexpected, or violent deaths. The duties of a forensic pathologist go far beyond performing autopsies; they also collect forensic evidence for victims of sexual assault, follow scientific and legal procedures, interact with the families of the deceased, and work with law enforcement to determine and document the cause of death.

To be a forensic pathologist requires objectivity and emotional sensitivity in service of medicolegal documentation matters and giving families the information they need to grieve their deceased loved ones. Forensic pathologists are more than just physicians. Their specialized training in forensics, firearms, medical science, medicolegal documentation, and toxicology positions them as unique experts in medical science and legal matters.

To remain objective, forensic pathologists collect medical history information, evaluate evidence from a crime scene, and collaborate with local, regional, state, and federal law enforcement. Attorneys often rely on forensic pathologists’ official cause of death reports in legal cases involving murder, manslaughter, and sexual assault. A forensic pathologist’s official documentation can significantly impact people’s lives, explaining the extensive medical background and strict requirements for licensure established for this profession.

Due to the emotionally taxing nature of this work, the demand for forensic pathologists is at an all-time high. The National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME) recommends at most 250 autopsies be performed annually per physician, but this number is often exceeded due to a shortage of forensic pathologists.

Although the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) doesn’t have specific salary data for forensic pathologists, it does have salary data for two similar professions: physicians and forensic scientists. Physicians in the United States make an average annual salary of $248,640 per year, and the occupation is experiencing an average expected growth of 4 percent between 2023 and 2033 (BLS 2024). Salaries for forensic pathologists vary depending on the funding, population, caseload, and cost of living in a particular area. Most forensic pathologists have a medical degree which requires anywhere from 12 to 14 years of education.

By comparison, forensic science technicians earn an average annual salary of $71,540 per year, and the occupation is growing much faster than average occupations at 14 percent in the same decade (BLS 2024).

It’s important to note that while forensic scientists contribute to death investigation work and require approximately 4-6 years of education, a forensic pathologist typically has a medical degree and nearly double the years of education and experience compared to a forensic science technician.

Being a forensic pathologist is both a challenging and rewarding career. In her blog, Forensic Pathology Forum, Dr. Judy Melinek, a board-certified forensic pathologist, writes that what she likes most about working in this profession is “helping families with their grief and explaining to them what happened to their loved one. I find it gives them the closure they need, and sometimes I am the only one who has taken the time to explain the medicine to them in a way they understand, even following their loved one’s long hospitalization.” She continued:

I also like testifying in court and seeing the eyes of the jury light up when I explain what happened, and they ‘get it.’ I also really like teaching students for the same reasons. A jury needs to understand the scientific basis for my opinions to render a just decision, so it gives me a lot of professional satisfaction to play that important role in the legal system, whether it be to testify on behalf of the prosecution or the defense.

To help families find closure, serve in a critical objective role in legal cases involving wrongful death and fill the growing need for forensic pathologists through professional service and teaching, read on to learn more about how to pursue a career as a forensic pathologist.

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Step-By-Step Guide to Becoming a Forensic Pathologist

Board-certified forensic pathologist Dr. Judy Melinek outlines the steps to become a forensic pathologist in the Forensic Pathology Forum, including completing a bachelor’s and medical degree and a medical residency and fellowship training in forensics. Here is the typical pathway to becoming a forensic pathologist:

Step One: Graduate from High School (Four Years)

The first step that opens the doors to many rewarding careers is earning a high school diploma or GED. To be accepted into a high-quality undergraduate college or university, high school students interested in forensic pathology career pathways are advised to take science and mathematics as many courses as possible.

Step Two: Earn a Bachelor’s Degree (Four Years)

The next step in pursuing a career in forensic pathology is earning a bachelor’s degree in one of the following fields: pre-med, biology, or chemistry. Taking undergraduate elective courses in forensic science, criminal justice, or psychology is also recommended.

Arizona State University Online

Arizona State University Online offers a 120-credit bachelor of science in biological sciences online. Students can access laboratory science coursework online, partnering with leading technology industry companies. Students may be required to attend on-campus lab classes or fulfill requirements with transfer credits. Students can enroll in this online program several times throughout the year.

Location: Tempe, AZ
Duration: Four years
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)

Drexel University

Drexel University offers a hybrid, part-time, two-year pre-med certificate program for non-scientific undergraduate degree holders. This program aims to prepare applicants with science courses to work in healthcare-related professions. Students who have completed an undergraduate degree and have a cumulative 3.0 GPA may apply for this 32-credit program. Offering evening and online classes, courses are taught by the Drexel College of Medicine faculty. In addition, a free Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) preparation course is available in the final semester.

Location: Philadelphia, PA
Duration: Two years
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)

Step Three: Complete a Medical Degree (Four Years)

Applying for medical school requires demanding tasks from start to finish. The application process is competitive, and medical students should anticipate spending most of their time in classes, clinical rotations, and preparing for examinations.

Medical schools typically require students to take courses in anatomy, physiology, biology, chemistry, and medical law. In addition to the exacting coursework, medical students are expected to gain real-life experience through clinical rotations. Aspiring forensic pathologists should elect to spend a clinical rotation in forensic pathology through a county medical examiner’s office or a morgue.

University of Michigan Medical School

The University of Michigan Medical School offers a PhD in molecular and cellular pathology degree programs: an MD program for medical doctors and an MD/PhD program for those who want to attend medical school and focus on cutting-edge research in academia.

Applicants must provide MCAT scores and medical school applications to apply to the MD program. The MD/PhD program applicants must have at least 18 months of research experience and a passion for science and patient care. Residency and fellowship opportunities are available to graduates from these programs.

Location: Ann Arbor, MI
Duration: 2.5 to four years
Accreditation: Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME)

Step Four: Earn a Medical License (Timeline Varies)

To become a legally practicing physician, medical students must complete a three-step process to earn a medical license. All three steps are typically completed during medical school and involve rigorous multi-day examinations sponsored by the Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) and the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME).

Step Five: Complete a Medical Residency (three Years)

After earning a medical degree and obtaining a medical license, students desiring to become forensic pathologists need a residency program to start practicing as physicians. Programs typically last three years, and students should seek programs accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME). Residencies in forensic pathology typically include advanced didactic and practical courses in toxicology and medical laboratory testing.

Some residencies are offered on a short-term rotation basis, such as the Forensic Pathology Rotation at Cedars Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Residents perform forensic autopsies supervised by forensic pathologists with the Los Angeles County Department of Medical Examiner-Coroner and on-scene examinations. Participants can expect to perform up to 40 autopsies, including toxicology laboratory studies, to help qualify for board certification. Living expenses are offered to those admitted.

Location: Los Angeles, CA
Duration: One month
Accreditation: Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC)

Step Six: Enroll in a Forensic Pathology Fellowship (One Year)

Fellowships in forensic pathology provide an opportunity to learn more in-depth knowledge and gain practical experience through a supervised mentorship. Advanced studies in medicolegal documentation, toxicology, trace evidence, DNA technology, firearms, and ballistics are available, and fellowships are often required to earn board certification. In addition, specialization programs in forensic pathology can be arranged through local, state, or federal medical examination offices.

University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC)

The University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in Memphis offers a one-year forensic pathology fellowship in conjunction with the Shelby County Medical Examiner’s Office and West Tennessee Regional Forensic Center. Fellows in this program can expect to perform 250 autopsies under the mentorship of the American Board of Pathology certified forensic pathologists. In addition, through agreements with numerous healthcare organizations in the area, such as Le Bonheur Children’s Hospital and Methodist University Hospitals, fellows can learn several sub-specialties, including pediatric pathology, neuropathology, and forensic odontology.

A two-week course in toxicology in Pennsylvania and several courses in forensic science through the University of Tennessee campuses in Nashville and Knoxville are included, and fellows in this program are expected to attend and present at conferences. To be eligible to apply, fellows must complete an anatomy and physiology/clinical pathology residency and be licensed to practice medicine in Tennessee.

Location: Memphis, TN
Duration: One year
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)

The National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME) keeps an up-to-date list of forensic pathology fellowships complete with residency requirements.

Step Seven: Earn Board Certification (Timeline Varies)

Physicians who complete a fellowship in forensic pathology are eligible to apply for board certification in forensic pathology through the American Board of Pathology (ABP). Board certification may be required for some medicolegal examiner positions and can lead to expanded career options and higher salaries.

The career pathway to becoming a forensic pathologist requires stamina and diligence. After high school, aspiring forensic pathologists can expect to spend 12 years preparing for this demanding and gratifying career through intensive academic and practical courses.

Helpful Resources for Forensic Pathologists

Several organizations and accreditation bodies represent the multidisciplinary nature of forensic pathology to ensure that physicians with forensic pathology specialties are well-supported and held to the highest standards of professionalism.

Below is a comprehensive list of professional certification, accreditation, and service organizations dedicated to advancing subspecialties in forensic pathology.

American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS): a multidisciplinary professional organization that provides leadership to advance science and its application to the legal system
American Board of Pathology (ABP): the certifying board body for forensic pathologists
American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators (ABMDI): a not-for-profit independent professional certification board permitting high standards for the practice of medicolegal investigators
American Board of Toxicology (ABT): accredits medical examination offices
American Society for Investigative Pathology (ASIP): a society of biomedical scientists who investigate mechanisms of disease
American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP): unites more than 100,000 anatomic and clinical pathologists, medical laboratory professionals, residents, and students to accelerate the advancement of laboratory medicine to improve patient care
International Association for Coroners and Medical Examiners (IACME): offers accreditation for medicolegal offices, elected coroner officials, and medical examiners
National Association of Medical Examiners (NAME): offering and promoting accreditation of medicolegal death investigation systems
National Academy of Sciences (NAS): published the cited paper above in 2009, calling for increased support from the U.S. Department of Justice to increase the number of forensic pathologists
National Institute of Justice (NIJ): a group dedicated to the knowledge and understanding of crime and justice issues through science

Rachel Drummond, MEd

Writer

Top 10 Signs That Someone is Lying

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesTop 10 Signs That Someone is Lying

Did you know that just 54 percent of lies can be accurately spotted? Also, extroverts tend to tell more lies than introverts, according to Vanessa Van Edwards, author of the national best-selling book Captivate and founder and lead investigator of the Science of People.

According to her research, at least 82 percent of lies go undetected, which led her to develop a course in lie detection titled “How to Be a Human Lie Detector.” The numbers show that such a course may be a good investment: in a study titled “Prevalence of Lying in America,” only six out of ten Americans claimed to tell the truth every day.

With numbers like these, one individual, even if under oath, may not be very trustworthy. The good news is that even though roughly half of the population promises to be telling the truth, there are some ways people can increase their truth discernment skills to protect themselves from emotional and financial ruin.

While lie detection courses are valuable for face-to-face interactions, the lies that do the most financial damage in the 21st century happen over telecommunications. According to USA.gov, communication channels such as phone, email, text, online classifieds, or social media are used to deceive or threaten people to give out their personal information or money.

Just how much hard-earned cash has been lost by people under duress? In 2024, scam victims reported losing $12.5 billion in fraud—a staggering increase of more than 25 percent from 2023, according to the most recent available data from the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).

It can’t be stated often enough: to protect your financial and personal assets from liars, never ever give out your personal information or transfer money by wire transfer to someone you don’t know.

Why Do People Lie?

As well as all the online fraud, someone may intentionally lie to you in person. Research conducted at the University of Wisconsin indicates that many lies are minor, commonly referred to as white lies. Their research shows that the highest percentage, 21 percent, of lies were told in an effort to avoid others. Fourteen percent were lies meant to protect the liar and 9 percent were intended to generate personal benefit or gain.

Discerning why a person might be lying to you may help you determine whether they are truthful or misleading you.

Whether you’re dealing with false online threats or dishonest people lying to your face, the question remains: what are the signs that someone is lying? According to Vanessa Van Edwards, this is one of the first steps in becoming familiar with how someone typically acts. This is the process of establishing a baseline, which she defines as “How someone acts when they are under normal, non-threatening conditions […] or how someone looks when they are telling the truth.”

In other words, it may be difficult to tell when someone is lying if you don’t know how they act when they are telling the truth, which underscores the importance of establishing trust with someone before you share personal information. For example, it’s always best to call your bank directly and know who you’re speaking with rather than trust someone who calls at random or puts an official-looking letter in the mail claiming to be a bank employee.

On the other hand, if you know someone and find yourself wondering if you’re being told the whole truth or a half-truth, here is a science-backed list of top 10 signs that someone is lying.

1. A Change in Speech Patterns

One telltale sign someone may not be telling the whole truth is irregular speech. According to Gregg McCrary, a retired FBI criminal profiler, a person’s voice or mannerisms of speaking may change when they tell a lie, as reported on Forbes.

McCrary first takes the strategy of identifying a person’s regular speech patterns and mannerisms by asking typical, straightforward questions, such as what their name is or where they live. This allows him to see any changes in speaking or characteristics when he asks more challenging, interrogative questions.

2. The Use of Non-Congruent Gestures

If a person says yes but shakes their head no, it may indicate that they’re not telling the truth. As Dr. Ellen Hendriksen, a clinical psychologist at Boston University’s Center for Anxiety and Related Disorders, points out in Scientific American, non-congruent gestures are movements in the body that don’t match the words a person says, and the gestures are the truth-tellers. In Dr. Hendricksen’s example, if someone says, “Of course I’ll cooperate with the investigation” and gives a small head shake, there’s a possibility they will not tell the whole truth and nothing but the truth.

3. Not Saying Enough

When truth-telling witnesses describe what they saw and are asked: “Is there anything else?” more details are revealed. But when liars are asked to go beyond their prepared stories, few to no other details are offered.

Researchers quoted in the American Psychological Association (APA) refer to these people as “liars who deceive by omission,” who, when asked to answer questions or provide more details, typically offer less than those telling the truth. This can be quantified through transcripts of phone calls, witness statements, or noticed by an absence of descriptive words in a conversation.

Another way researchers verify the truth is by asking people to tell events backward. Truth-tellers will stick to the same story while offering more details, while liars often get tripped up and create a different story while not adding detail to the original.

4. Saying Too Much

On the flip side, researchers from Harvard Business School determined that liars trying to deceive stretch the truth with too many words. Since such a liar may make up things as they go, they may also tend to add excessive detail to convince themselves or others of what they are saying. They may also embellish with words that a person telling the truth wouldn’t think of adding.

Other linguistic cues revealed in this study show that liars tend to use more profanity and third-person pronouns (e.g., he, she, and they) to distance themselves from any first-person (e.g., I, my, mine) involvement.

5. An Unusual Rise or Fall in Vocal Tone

In the same APA article, an important point is raised around culture, context, and communication regarding detecting lies.

Dr. David Matsumoto, a professor of psychology at San Francisco State University and CEO of Humintell, a consulting company that trains people to read human emotions, emphasizes that researchers must consider cultural bias when determining if someone is lying or not. For example, his lie detection research found that Chinese participants tend to speak with a higher vocal pitch when lying. In direct contrast, Hispanic research participants spoke with a lower vocal pitch when lying.

This research shows that non-verbal cues for lying can correlate with cultural differences, which should be considered rather than judging only from one’s own cultural beliefs.

6. Direction of Their Eyes

Much has been discussed on the topic of truthfulness and eye contact. A commonly-held cultural belief in the United States is: if a person isn’t making eye contact, they aren’t telling the truth, whereas, in other cultures, eye contact can be considered untrustworthy in a given context.A study titled “The Eyes Don’t Have It,” published in 2012 in Plos One, debunked the notion that people look left or right when lying. However, a research study conducted in 2015 by the University of Michigan and featured in Time Magazine showed that 70 percent of people in 120 media clips lied while maintaining direct eye contact.

7. Covering Their Mouth or Eyes

Many people want to cover up a lie or hide from their reaction to it, which may be why they put their hands over their eyes or mouths when letting an untruth out. According to former CIA officers in their book Spy the Lie, others may even completely close their eyes when telling a lie, as reported in Parade Magazine. This could be especially true when it’s in response to a question that does not require a lot of reflection.

8. Excessive Fidgeting

Think about what a kid does when asked where the last cookie went. They may lick their lips, look at their nails, or even shake their hands—and then tell a big whopper of a lie.

What’s happening is that their anxiety response has kicked in, causing blood to be withdrawn from their extremities, according to the former CIA officers quoted in Parade Magazine. They may be unconsciously trying to calm that anxiety response or at least get the blood flowing back to their extremities, all of which could point to nervousness about telling a lie.

9. Finger Pointing (literal or Figurative)

The act of pointing at or toward something or someone else, with gestures or words, may signal a surefire desire to take a focus off of an individual and place blame onto someone else, according to Business Insider.Of course, knowing if that person normally gesticulates or finger points frequently can be a helpful baseline. However, if someone speaks in a measured demeanor as opposed to a hostile one that includes finger-pointing, this aggressive switch may indicate someone is lying.

10. Self-Identifying as a “Good Liar”

Perhaps the easiest way to spot a liar is to let them do it for you. In a study titled “Lie prevalence, lie characteristics and strategies of self-reported good liars,” research published in 2019 in Plos One showed that those who identify as “good liars” are more of an honest indicator than lie detector tests.

This study showed that “good liars” mostly told little lies to colleagues and friends in person and focused on telling simple and clear stories. This research’s easy takeaway is that if someone brags about being a good liar, don’t trust them.

The Bottom Line: Is It Possible to Tell If Someone is Lying?

While forensics professionals are trained to learn strategies to elicit the truth from fiction, you don’t have to be a detective or own a lie detector machine to know when someone may be lying face-to-face, over the phone, or in an email or text.

By nature, the truth can be subjective and personal perspectives can skew what’s real and not real. The strategies used to spot a lie can sometimes be confusing or even conflicting. To this point, a study published in the British Psychological Society showed that people with high levels of emotional intelligence might read people well but have trouble determining if a personal story is deceptive or not.

And while the signs listed above are based on quantitative (proven by numerical data) and qualitative (confirmed by description) research, no single technique should be used alone as a determining factor for catching someone in a lie for personal or law enforcement purposes. Researchers do their best to design studies that isolate specific evidence, but every situation is unique and should be handled carefully depending on circumstances.

To learn more about how to spot the signs that someone is lying, consider becoming a criminal investigator. Professionals in this field are classified as forensic scientists or police and detectives by the BLS, depending on job responsibilities.

For those interested in learning more, Udemy offers courses such as Lie Detection Course: Taught by FBI Trainer, which shows how to sort truth from fiction in speech, voice messages, or email. It is taught by best-selling author Dr. David J. Lieberman who has trained NSA, CIA, and FBI agents.

When in doubt, let your instincts protect your personal and financial information. To summarize some practical advice from the Federal Trade Commission: if you think someone might be lying to you, leave the conversation, hang up the phone, stop emailing or texting, and report what happened immediately to someone you actually know and trust.

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How to Become a Forensic Psychiatrist

Home Forensic Education Blog How to BecomeHow to Become a Forensic Psychiatrist

Becoming a forensic psychiatrist is not easy, but the rewards can be significant. For those who have ever wondered how a criminal’s mind works or wanted to provide compassionate treatment to incarcerated offenders or victims of violent crime, this could be an interesting if challenging career path.

This career, which exists at the intersection of mental healthcare, medicine, and the law, has gained in popularity in recent decades. In fact, board certification for the specialty did not exist until 1992 but has since grown as a professional field in popular culture. However, it is essential to note that a forensic psychiatrist, a medical doctor, does not perform the same tasks or have the same responsibilities as a forensic psychologist or a criminal profiler.

What’s the difference between forensic psychiatry and forensic psychology? According to UC Davis Health, “Forensic psychiatry is that aspect of psychiatry that interfaces with the legal system.” Compared to forensic psychologists, psychiatrists have specialized medical training in diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

Remember that forensic psychologists with doctoral-level (such as PhD, PsyD, or EdD) degrees aren’t required to go to medical school, but may have particular expertise in such issues as psychological testing. By comparison, forensic psychiatrists follow career paths similar to medical doctors and can prescribe medications.

For those with the intelligence and focus to complete the steps to become a medical doctor and then complete residencies and fellowships, forensic psychiatry is a fascinating specialty career.

Keep reading to learn how one can become a forensic psychiatrist, including career outlook and a step-by-step career guide.

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MS - Clinical Mental Health Counseling: Forensic Counseling

MS - Forensic Psychology

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MA Psychology - Forensic Psychology

Outlook for the Forensic Psychiatrist Career

Because forensic psychiatrists are also medical doctors, they must understand complex scientific subjects, be able to think critically, and thrive in an academic environment. Students must be willing to dedicate many years of their lives, as outlined below, to studying, taking exams, and working in labs before they can even specialize in their chosen field. Perseverance and mental stamina are other essential skills.

The forensic psychiatry career is particularly specialized, so finding reliable information about its projected growth and salary can be a bit difficult compared to other fields. However, it is possible to extrapolate details to piece together the projected growth for this field.

For instance, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS 2024), the expected growth rate for all physicians and surgeons will be 4 percent between 2023 and 2033—a category that includes psychiatrists. While only a fraction of those new physician jobs is for psychiatrists, the reality is that there is a need for medical professionals to enter the field. As access to mental health care expands, the demand will likely increase. It is possible to infer from this varied data that there will continue to be a need for psychiatrists of every stripe, including those specializing in forensic work, for many years to come.

In terms of salary, the BLS reports that the mean annual wage for psychiatrists in 2023 was $256,930 (BLS May 2023). The same data indicates that the lowest-paid 10 percent in the position makes $73,280, with the 25th percentile coming in at $124,070. Data for the 50th, 75th, and 90th percentiles are not available because they exceed the amount the BLS reports: $239,200.

Despite not having data specific to forensic psychiatry, the outlook for forensic psychiatry looks promising for those willing to put in the time and effort.

Education & Licensing Requirements for a Forensic Psychiatrist

Forensic psychiatrists are medical doctors. This means that to become a forensic psychiatrist, one must not only study a relevant subject at the undergraduate level but also apply for and complete medical school. In addition, forensic psychiatrists must complete a residency in psychiatry and a fellowship in forensic psychiatry.

Forensic psychiatrists must be licensed as doctors in the state where they intend to practice, including passing all sections of the United States Medical Licensing Examination. The licensing process will vary from state to state but will undoubtedly include a background check and completion of an accredited medical program.

Forensic Psychiatry Certification

Forensic psychiatrists can also become board-certified in their specialty. The American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN) has a Forensic Psychiatry specialty certification. To qualify for the exam, applicants must first seek board certification in psychiatry from ABPN; then, they are eligible to take the forensic psychiatry exam.

Applicants must pay a substantial testing fee ($1,945 as of 2025) and have completed at least one year of forensic psychiatry training (usually a fellowship) before taking the exam. While board certification is not strictly required to work as a forensic psychiatrist, it can undoubtedly open professional doors for doctors.

Different Paths and Steps to Becoming a Forensic Psychiatrist

Because forensic psychiatrists are medical doctors, there are few paths to take to become one. Prospective forensic psychiatrists may choose from various majors as undergraduates but will need to follow the standard medical school to residency to fellowship path to meet all legal academic requirements for this particular career.

Step 1: Earn an Undergraduate Degree (Four Years)

In the last years of high school, students should begin to research and apply to four-year institutions since medical school requires a minimum of a bachelor’s degree and admission can be quite competitive.

Several different undergraduate degrees are considered pre-med, but it is generally preferred that prospective medical school students have a background in life sciences. Common pre-med majors include biology and chemistry, and forensic science.

The Department of Forensic and Investigative Science at West Virginia University offers bachelor of science degrees in forensic biology, forensic chemistry, and forensic examination. These degree programs heavily emphasize courses in biology, chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, calculus, and statistics and prepare students for future forensic careers and advanced degree coursework. This degree program requires a forensic science internship or research experience.

Location: Morgantown, WV
Duration: Four years
Accreditation: Forensic Education Programs Accreditation Commission (FEPAC)

Regardless of the major a student chooses, it is essential that they complete the medical school prerequisite courses, including advanced courses in the sciences. Applicants should check the admissions requirements for the medical schools where they want to apply to ensure they are taking a course load with appropriate rigor expected from medical school admissions. Since medical school admissions are extremely competitive, applicants should excel in their courses and keep their GPAs as high as possible.

Lastly, students who are sure of their path early on may consider enrolling in a BS to MD program. These programs allow students to move directly from their undergraduate studies to medical school without the difficult medical school application process. Of course, admission to the MD program is contingent on performance at the undergraduate level.

Step 2: Apply to Medical School

Applying to medical school is a bit more involved than applying to undergraduate programs. Students will have to submit an application and recommendations, along with MCAT scores, and they will often have to complete in-person interviews. Upon entrance to medical school, students need not declare a specialty (such as psychiatry), as all medical students must undergo the same foundational training before applying to residency programs.

Step 3: Complete Medical School (Four Years)

By far the most arduous part of becoming a forensic psychiatrist is completing medical school. Typically, this process takes four years of full-time school. Part-time medical school or working while in medical school are virtually unheard of due to the strenuous coursework and time students must dedicate to studying.

The curriculum in medical school is balanced across different disciplines, allowing students to experience a range of branches of medicine. This means that even those who are confident in their desire to become forensic psychiatrists will gain experience in fields as diverse as gynecology and plastic surgery.

Students will begin the licensing process following the second year of medical school with the first part of the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE), known colloquially as “the boards.” During year four, students will take part two of the exam.

Step 4: Apply for and Complete Residency in Psychiatry (Four Years)

To specialize in forensic psychiatry, graduating medical school students must first complete a psychiatry residency. This generally means working as an entry-level doctor in a hospital in a variety of capacities from emergency medicine to inpatient psychiatric care. Residents work alongside nurses and supervising physicians to begin to learn the reality of working in psychiatry.

Residencies, which last for another four years, are quite competitive. Students should expect to have a top choice and several backup programs to ensure they can complete a psychiatry residency. After the first year, doctors will complete Step 3 of the USMLE, which is the final part.

Step 5: Apply for and Complete Fellowship in Forensic Psychiatry (Two Years)

After completing a residency in psychiatry and getting a big-picture understanding of the field, doctors can apply to a forensic psychiatry fellowship. These fellowships are sponsored by universities and last for two years, during which doctors can expect to learn about forensic psychiatry in its many forms through clinical experience, research, and teaching.

Step 6: Apply for Board Certification

After a year of a forensic psychiatrist fellowship, doctors can sit for the forensic psychiatrist specialty exam from the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN). This certification is not legally required for working as a forensic psychiatrist, but having it can be a professional asset that leads to increased networking and career opportunities.

Jocelyn Blore

Chief Content Strategist

A Quick History of Forensic Science: Fingerprints, DNA & Beyond

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesA Quick History of Forensic Science: Fingerprints, DNA & Beyond

Anecdotal stories of the birth of forensic investigations reach back thousands of years. One such tale begins with a peasant having been slashed to death in ancient China. The village lawman then gathers the three farmers who work the fields closest to the crime and has them lay their scythes out on the ground. As the lawman questions them over many hours, flies begin to collect around one scythe in particular; though washed clean, the traces of blood on the scythe are still detectable by these deputized insects. While that story itself might not be admissible in one of today’s courtrooms, the logic underpinning its narrative is still used in contemporary forensic practice.

Forensics is a broad field, pulling from several different scientific disciplines. Archimedes’ bathtub discovery of how to measure volume (Eureka!) had immediate applications in detecting forgeries of gold.

In 200 BC, the Babylonians used fingerprints to sign contracts, but the practice of fingerprinting wouldn’t see use in Western investigations until thousands of years later. In China, they were used in this manner as early as the Qin Dynasty. In 1248, Song Ci wrote Washing Away of Wrongs, introducing regulations for autopsy reports in Chinese courts, and also relating the ancient story of the scythe and the flies, among other colorfully instructive lessons.

Forensics is an exciting field no matter the era in which it’s practiced; there’s always a little more than meets the eye. To get a quick look at the history of forensics and the crimes it solved as well as committed, read on.

Fingerprints: Nice Idea, Mind If I Steal It?

In 1892, Sir Francis Galton popularized a method for classifying fingerprints, one that is still used today. After he conducted statistical research into the likelihood of two people having the same sets of fingerprints, Galton set about categorizing different types of fingerprint patterns into broad classifications: the plain arch; the tented arch; the simple loop; the central pocket loop; the double loop; the lateral pocket loop; the plain whorl; and the accidental. Galton also helped build the scientific foundation for studies that would back up his system, helping it to gain traction in the courts.

A half-cousin of Charles Darwin, Galton was a veritable Renaissance man; an incomplete list of his professional titles includes those of geographer, explorer, inventor, psychologist, and statistician. Sadly, Galton was also the inventor of eugenics, a pseudoscience whose most impactful contribution to the world has been the justification of genocide. A further investigation of Galton’s past finds that Galton was unscrupulous in other areas, too: he’d stolen the fingerprinting idea from other researchers.

Over a decade earlier, in 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds published an article in Nature that predicted the forensic usefulness of fingerprinting. Borrowing from the work of Sir William James Herschel, who had been using fingerprinting in India as a way to battle signature forgery, Faulds added his own experiences with law enforcement in Japan, proposing fingerprinting as a serious investigative tool. Dr. Faulds then sought out Charles Darwin to help further the research. Darwin passed on Faulds’ findings to his half-cousin, Galton. While Galton did indeed popularize the first method of modern fingerprint classification a few years later, he never credited Faulds or Herschel for their work, and a feud ensued between the three men for decades.

Databases: To Catch a Thief, Think Like a Thief

Meet Eugene Vidocq, a career criminal turned professional criminologist who operated in early 19th century France. His life story influenced major writers like Edgar Allan Poe and Victor Hugo, but his life’s work had an enormous impact on the forensic sciences.

In 1811, having sworn off the life of crime, Vidocq founded a plainclothes investigative unit called the Brigade de la Sûreté, and by 1813, he had Napoleon’s blessing. Using his own perspective as a former criminal, Vidocq introduced the world to the concepts of ballistics analysis, undercover investigations, and footprint analysis.

Vidocq also championed the first major criminal database, which he based on his theory that many crimes were committed by re-offenders (such as himself!). While Vidocq was said to have a photographic memory, he knew he couldn’t rely on his colleagues to have the same, so he implemented a system of anthropometrics that’s still partially in use by French police today. After each arrest, officers would record the suspect’s aliases, physical description, previous convictions, likely motive, and other relevant information, such as handwriting samples for suspected forgers.

Over time, the information got more and more detailed, and the system got more developed (thanks, in part, to another French police officer, Alphonse Bertillon). These types of databases still exist to this day, in digital form.

Crime Labs: Life Imitates Art

In the early 20th century, Edmond Locard became known as the French Sherlock Holmes, and he’s now credited as one of the fathers of modern forensic science. While the Sherlock Holmes stories of the late 19th century focused on the nature of evidence and the power of deductive logic, investigations in the real world at that time largely centered around fallible eyewitness testimony and corruptly extracted confessions.

Locard borrowed from the world of fiction, and from his own experience as a medical examiner in World War I, to bring forensic science—particularly the notion of trace evidence—into modern usage. In 1910, Locard rented a two-room attic in Lyon and transformed it into what’s considered the first forensic crime lab.

It wasn’t until 1912 that Locard and the lab broke a major case. A woman was found murdered in her parents’ house and the prime suspect, her boyfriend, had a solid alibi by contemporary standards: four men swore that they had been playing cards with the boyfriend at the time of the murder.

Locard analyzed the corpse and determined the cause of death to be strangulation. He then scraped under the boyfriend’s fingernails and found a pink residue, which he identified to be women’s makeup. Makeup wasn’t mass-produced at the time, and could therefore be traced back to its vendor with certainty. Locard matched the fingernail residue to the victim’s beauty shop and the boyfriend was arrested; in his confession, he revealed that he had set the clock back an hour at the card game where the others had vouched for his presence.

Locard is famous for his exchange principle, which states that whenever there is contact between two items, there will be an exchange of material. That principle now forms the basis for much of forensic science, taking into account fingerprints, blood samples, hair analysis, and other forms of trace evidence.

Forensic Education: Practice Makes Perfect

Frances Glessner Lee, America’s first female police captain, is often referred to as the mother of forensic science, and she played a critical role in the field’s development in the United States.

Through her own personal advocacy, she successfully lobbied to have coroners replaced with medical professionals, thereby professionalizing the field of forensic pathology. In 1931, Lee also used her own money to help start Harvard University’s Department of Legal Medicine—the first of its kind in the country—and she eventually went on to found the Harvard Associates in Police Science, a national organization dedicated to furthering the field of forensic science. Prior to this, very little training existed for forensic investigation.

One of Lee’s enduring legacies is a series of crime scene dioramas titled The Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death, which she began constructing in the 1940s. A set of meticulously crafted crime scenes in miniature, these 20 dioramas were modeled after real and challenging cases and designed to test the abilities of forensic students to properly collect and analyze all the relevant evidence. Common themes within the cases include an increased focus on “invisible victims” from society’s lower classes and the danger of unconscious biases in forensic investigations.

Lee’s murderous arts-and-crafts have been exhibited in major art galleries, such as the Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, as recently as 2018. Today, 18 of the 20 dioramas are still used to train investigators by Harvard Associates in Police Science.

DNA: Forensic Science Investigates Itself

The mid-1980s brought about perhaps the biggest leap forward for forensic science since the analog fingerprint: DNA matching.

In 1984, Sir Alec Jeffreys, a British geneticist, stumbled across the realization that DNA showed both similarities and differences between family members, making it perhaps the most accurate form of identification ever discovered. For the next three years, Jeffreys’ laboratory was the only one in the world capable of performing DNA matching and it received an enormous number of requests in that timeframe.

In 1986, Jeffreys’ method was employed in a criminal case for the first time, when local police were investigating the rape and murder of two women: one that occurred in 1983, and one that occurred in 1986. Blood and saliva samples were collected from more than 4,000 men in the area, but the method identified only one match for both crime scenes: the DNA of Colin Pitchfork. Without the use of DNA matching, Pitchfork would never have been apprehended. But just as importantly, it exonerated Richard Buckland, a man who had been up until then the prime suspect (having falsely confessed) and whom authorities say would have served life in prison if not for Jeffreys’ contributions to the case.

Today, DNA alone is not enough to secure a conviction, but it still plays a significant role in forensic investigations. And, similar to that first case in 1986, it’s proven to be as powerful a tool for determining innocence as finding guilt. In 1989, Gary Dotson was exonerated after ten years in jail thanks to DNA evidence. There have been 375 more DNA exonerations since. In modern investigations, thousands of cases have seen prime suspects identified and pursued only to be found innocent prior to conviction thanks to Jeffreys’ discovery.

The Future History of Forensics

The evolution of forensics is far from finished. Today’s forensic investigators are continuing to write the future’s history with advancements in digital forensics. And the trend of controversy is sure to continue: today’s forensic scientists are looking inward at their own internal biases, at systemic injustices, and at the legal gray areas of privacy.

Previously proven truths such as fingerprint identification and DNA matching are coming under harsh scrutiny. But a willingness to seek out errors and admit them isn’t a sign of weakness—it’s a strength—and it’s one that forms a core principle of forensic investigation.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Matt Zbrog is a writer and researcher from Southern California. Since 2018, he’s written extensively about the increasing digitization of investigations, the growing importance of forensic science, and emerging areas of investigative practice like open source intelligence (OSINT) and blockchain forensics. His writing and research are focused on learning from those who know the subject best, including leaders and subject matter specialists from the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) and the American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS). As part of the Big Employers in Forensics series, Matt has conducted detailed interviews with forensic experts at the ATF, DEA, FBI, and NCIS.

15 Universities with Online Computer Forensics Programs

Home Forensic Education Blog Resources15 Universities with Online Computer Forensics Programs

The field of computer forensics is rising to meet digital security needs. As the amount of digital information entered, shared, and stored online increases, so too does the need for information security professionals to protect privacy. By illustration, Fortune Business shows that the global smart home market size was valued at $101.07 billion in 2023. The market is projected to grow from $121.59 billion in 2024 to $633.20 billion by 2032. Additionally, the smart home market in the United States is predicted to grow significantly, reaching an estimated value of $105.25 billion by 2032.

This rapid expansion means time-saving enhanced services between consumers and manufacturers in healthcare, retail, and transportation but also leaves individuals and corporations vulnerable to digital information breaches.

Also known as information security analysts, this career field is poised for growth in the coming decade. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) predicts information security analyst careers will grow by 33 percent from 2023 to 2033 (BLS 2024). This rate is much faster than the national average for all occupations (4 percent) and equates to 59,100 new computer forensics positions.

Befitting the digital nature of this job, there are several online computer forensics programs, including undergraduate, graduate, and certificate programs. Computer forensics programs also have titles such as digital forensics and cybersecurity. The computer forensics programs listed here teach students how to prevent theft and corruption of personal data, extract information from computers and mobile devices, and safely preserve and document digital evidence to be presented in a court of law if needed.

Why are computer forensics programs important? The answer is simple: as information technology policies and practices continue to involve day-by-day, more than ever, it is critical for law enforcement and digital security teams to stay ahead of criminals trying to steal and misuse private information.

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Stevenson University Online	Online Master's in Cybersecurity and Digital Forensics	Visit Site
Purdue Global	BS - Cybersecurity	Visit Site
Southern New Hampshire University	BS - Cybersecurity	Visit Site
Southern New Hampshire University	MS - Cybersecurity	Visit Site
American Public University	Cybercrime (Graduate Certificate)	Visit Site
American Public University	Cybersecurity (BS)	Visit Site
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Here are 15 online degree and continuing education programs for those getting started or wanting to enhance their skills and expand their career opportunities in computer forensics and information security.

1. American Military University

American Military University’s School of Science, technology, Engineering, and Math offers an online graduate certificate in digital forensics providing students with an advanced understanding of innovative methods and tools for analyzing and collecting digital data and devices associated with cybercrime. Completing this program does not award any professional certifications, but may be helpful in preparing to earn such certifications.

Made up of 18 credits, the program includes courses such as computer forensics; advanced cybercrime analysis; telecommunications and network security; advanced digital forensics; advanced eDiscovery; and information security management.

Location: Charles Town, WV
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Expected Time to Completion: Within a year

2. Strayer University

Strayer University offers an online bachelor of science program in criminal justice with a concentration in computer forensics, equipping students with the knowledge and skills to support criminal investigations. They learn to leverage data and computer forensics for collecting, analyzing, and preserving digital evidence.

Graduates will learn the basics for investigating computer-based crime. They will dig into the methods used by criminals for identifying and exploiting network vulnerabilities and developing countermeasures to prevent data and information breaches from criminals.

This 40-course program includes classes in networking security fundamentals; information technology in criminal justice; introduction to networking; computer forensic technology; crime and criminal behavior; criminal justice report writing; criminal investigation; and criminal procedure, among others.

Location: Alexandria, VA
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

3. University of Central Florida

The University of Central Florida, located in Orlando, offers a master’s degree in digital forensics that is nearly all online. Students defend their thesis on-campus or pursue one of the non-thesis options: enrolling in an internship or taking two elective courses.

Comprising 30 credits, the program includes courses such as computer forensics; topics in forensic science; the practice of digital forensics; advanced topics in computer security and computer forensics; wireless security and forensics; malware and software vulnerability analysis; operating systems and file system forensics; and incident response technologies.

Location: Orlando, FL
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

4. Southern New Hampshire University

Southern New Hampshire University offers an online bachelor of science in cyber security degree. This 120-credit program provides students with didactic coursework, hands-on experience in online cybersecurity labs, and the opportunity to transfer credits and earn certifications such as CompTIA Network+ and others.

In addition, students in this program can choose from two concentrations in data analytics and project management, and the curriculum is aligned with nationally recognized standards such as NIST’s NICE Cybersecurity Workforce Framework and CSEC Cyber Security Education Consortium.

Some of the courses in the curriculum include fundamentals of information technology; computer operating systems; introduction to computer networks; cybersecurity foundations; computer networking; network security; operating system security; cyber defense; and network defense.

Location: Manchester, NH
Accreditation: New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

5. Devry University

Devry University offers an online bachelor’s degree in computer information systems with a specialization in computer forensics that helps students develop skills related to programming, operating systems, connectivity, security, and hardware that they can leverage in today’s IoT economy.

The program will teach students how to utilize computer forensic software applications and the ethics and laws that affect digital evidence. They will also learn about recovering and gathering evidence from viruses and information security breaches that could be destroyed or encrypted and use them to prepare reports that may be submitted in court.

Consisting of 124 credits, the program includes courses such as digital forensics; cybersecurity and data privacy; information systems security planning and audit; web application development; database systems and programming fundamentals; introduction to cloud computing; fundamentals of information systems security; and introduction to digital devices.

Location: Lisle, IL
Accreditation: The Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

6. Pace University

Pace University offers an online bachelor’s degree in professional technology studies with a concentration in computer forensics. Students take 20 credits in core IT classes and 20 credits in their career focus emphasis. Core IT classes include computer security overview; crime and public policy; and mobile device forensics. Another 16 to 24 credits are taken in general education liberal arts studies.

The Seidenberg School at Pace University is designated as a National Center of Academic Excellence in Cyber Defense Education by the National Security Agency and the Department of Homeland Security.

The curriculum includes courses such as forensic investigation; evidence admissibility; mobile device forensics; crime and public policy; terrorism and society; database management systems; systems development and project management; web development with content management systems; and object oriented concepts and development.

Location: New York, NY
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Three to four years

7. Champlain College

Champlain College offers a 100 percent online bachelor’s degree in computer forensics and digital investigation. In this 120-credit program, students take courses such as criminal law and operating systems and expand their knowledge further through classes like cybercrime and mobile forensic analysis at the upper levels.

The program is offered in partnership with the Department of Defense Cyber Crime Center (DC3), enabling students to access industry credentials and reducing degree completion requirements by five courses. In addition, students can choose to earn the Department of Defense Digital Media Collector and the Digital Forensic Examiner certificates to access jobs in the federal government and private sectors.

Some of the courses in the curriculum include criminal law; criminal procedure; networking fundamentals; introduction to python; criminal investigation; digital forensic investigation techniques; malware forensics; anti-forensics and network forensics; operating system forensics; and mobile forensics.

Location: Burlington, VT
Accreditation: New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

8. Stevenson University

Stevenson University, with campuses in both Stevenson and Owings Mills, Maryland, offers an online master of science degree in cybersecurity and digital forensics. In addition to courses like incident response and evidence collection; windows forensic examinations; network penetration testing; legal compliance and ethics; malware detection, analysis, and prevention; file systems forensic analysis; and windows intrusion forensic investigations, the program also provides students with an opportunity to hone real-world skills with the mock intrusion and response capstone.

Stevenson University also offers a fully online 18-credit graduate certificate in digital forensics and an online bachelor’s degree in criminal justice; cybersecurity and digital forensics; and legal studies. Other programs offered by Stevenson include master’s degrees in crime scene investigation; forensic accounting; forensic investigation; forensic science; and forensic studies; and post-baccalaureate certificates in crime scene investigation; digital forensics; forensic accounting; and forensic investigation.

Location: Owings Mills, MD
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

9. University of the Potomac

The University of the Potomac, with campuses in Washington, D.C. and Falls Church, Virginia, has a fully online bachelor of science degree in cyber security and policy, offered in-person and online. A total of 18 credits in cybersecurity are required in lower-level courses such as cyber law; computer systems technology; and network security management, while 30 credits in cybersecurity and computer courses are needed for the upper level.

Courses include an introduction to digital forensics; network defense and countermeasures; and evaluating emerging technologies. In addition, students can choose from five concentration areas: government contract management; healthcare management; information management; international business; and management.

Location: District of Columbia & Falls Church, VA
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

10. Sam Houston State University

Sam Houston State University, located in Huntsville, Texas, offers a hybrid online master’s degree in digital forensics that is 30 credits. Students must take six required courses, including cyber law; digital security; network and cyber security; file system forensics; and digital forensics investigation, for a total of 18 credits and then four additional elective courses.

In addition, the campus features a network security lab to prepare students for training in data, network, and cyber security intrusion detection, prevention, and tracing. This program is ideal for students with major or minor degrees in computer science and criminal justice or professional experience who want to expand their knowledge and skills.

Location: Huntsville, TX
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

11. Boston University Metropolitan College

Boston University Metropolitan College in Boston has a graduate certificate in digital forensics that students can complete on-campus, hybrid, or online. Students take four classes in this 16-credit program, and if desired, students can apply these classes toward a master’s degree in computer information systems at the school.

Required courses include business data communication and networks; digital forensics and investigations; and mobile forensics and security. This program is certified by the Committee on National Security Systems (CNSS).

Location: Boston, MA
Accreditation: Project Management Institute Global Accreditation Center (GAC); Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education (CAHIIM); New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Eight to 12 months

12. Penn State Online

Penn State Online in University Park, Pennsylvania, offers an online master of professional studies degree in homeland security with a cyber threat analytics and prevention option. This 33-credit program is ideal for bachelor’s degree holders in technical or scientific fields such as applied mathematics, computer information systems, and statistics.

Required courses include homeland security administration: policies and programs; homeland security: social and ethical issues; and violence, threats, terror, and insurgency.

Courses in the cyber threat analytics and prevention option and electives include computer and cyber forensics; network management and security; cybersecurity analytics; data collection and cleaning; contemporary information systems architecture; web security and privacy; network and predictive analytics for socio-technical systems; and crisis, disaster, and risk management.

Location: University Park, PA
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: One year

13. University of Maryland Global Campus

The University of Maryland Global Campus, with a campus in Adelphi, Maryland, has an online master’s degree in digital forensics and cyber investigation that is 30 credits long and includes a three-credit final capstone project.

Five core courses include digital forensics and cyber investigation foundations; collection and examination of digital evidence; windows forensics and security; linux forensics and security; and cloud and network forensics. For the remaining 12 credits, students will be required to take four 3-credit elective courses.

Students learn skills such as creating navigation plans for digital forensic incidents and identifying malicious software, network activity, suspect traffic, and intrusion artifacts through review and analysis. Graduates from this program are prepared to take industry-level standard certifications such as GIAC Certified Forensic Analyst (GCFA) and EnCase Certified Examiner (EnCE).

Location: Adelphi, MD
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Two to five years

14. Utica University

Utica University in Utica, New York, has a master’s degree in cybersecurity with a digital forensics specialization available online. In this program, students learn how to analyze information on handheld devices like mobile phones and digital devices and recover and preserve such digital evidence. Students complete 18 credits in core required courses, nine credits in their specialization area, and a three-credit capstone course.

The core courses of the program include principles of cybersecurity; programming applications for cybersecurity; cloud infrastructure; defending critical national infrastructures and national security; threat hunting and incident response; and securing and defending networks. The digital forensics specialization includes courses in computer forensics and investigation methods; intrusion forensics and network analysis; and a malware practicum.

Location: Utica, NY
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

15. Capella University

Capella University offers an online master of science program in information assurance and cybersecurity with a concentration in digital forensics. The program positions students as cybersecurity leaders, providing them with the knowledge and skills needed for performing advanced computer forensics, including an in-depth understanding of the legal challenges associated with digital investigations. Graduates will be able to elevate their IT expertise and help make communities safer.

This program includes courses such as information technology security fundamentals; network security fundamentals and cryptography; information security regulatory and legal environment; operating system defense; and identifying and managing risk. Specialization courses include data engineering; digital forensics processes; digital forensics tools; programming for security professionals; and network architecture and cyber operations. The program requires a total of 48 credits.

Location: Minneapolis, MN
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

Farheen Gani

Writer

Farheen Gani writes about forensics schools across the United States, and has covered topics such as forensic chemistry and forensic science and biochemistry since 2018. She writes about healthcare, technology, education, and marketing. Her work has appeared on websites such as Tech in Asia and Foundr, as well as top SaaS blogs such as Zapier and InVision. You can connect with her on LinkedIn and Twitter (@FarheenGani).

How To Become a Crime Scene Technician – Education & Certification

Home Forensic Education Blog How to BecomeHow To Become a Crime Scene Technician – Education & Certification

For people seeking careers that are simultaneously challenging, meaningful, and exciting, it is tough to beat becoming a crime scene technician. These professionals, also known as forensic science technicians or crime scene analysts, have inspired a number of popular television programs such as CSI and Dexter. At the most basic level, these are the professionals who report to a crime scene and help to examine, collect, and transport the physical evidence found there. A crime scene technician may be called upon to take crime scene photos and help recreate the crime that took place, working alongside law enforcement.

Since this position straddles the worlds of criminal justice and science, there can be an overlap in responsibilities and position titles. Looking at the criminal justice side, crime scene technicians are considered entry-level positions compared to crime scene investigators, who typically have more experience and serve in supervisory roles.

Typically but not always, crime scene technicians and investigators will have police academy training. Once evidence is collected, entry-level forensic technicians are responsible for analyzing it in a laboratory and are supervised by forensic investigators. Having the job title of ‘investigator’ in this field means overseeing the work of crime scene or forensic technicians, overseeing the collection of evidence or laboratory outcomes, and making legal statements in a courtroom or legal capacity.

Since 87 percent of forensic and crime scene technologists and investigators work in local or state government (BLS 2024) lines may blur between the job responsibilities depending on local government funding. For example, a crime scene technician may be hired into a mostly evidence collection role, but later be asked to use their scientific skills in a laboratory setting if needed.

Overall, the crime scene technician career requires a background in science and exceptional attention to detail. Most crime scene technicians earn a bachelor’s before starting in the field and may go on to complete certification programs or an advanced degree to further their job prospects. While this occupation is not for the faint of heart, it does allow people to work beyond the confines of a cubicle and employ rigorous problem-solving skills in a real-world context.

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Stevenson University Online	Forensic Investigation Grad Certificate	Visit Site
Stevenson University Online	Online Master of Forensic Science (MFS)	Visit Site
ECPI University	Crime & Intelligence Analysis (Bachelor's)	Visit Site
Southern New Hampshire University	BA in Psychology - Forensic Psychology	Visit Site
Southern New Hampshire University	BSCJ - Criminology and Crime Analysis	Visit Site
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Career Outlook and Salary for Crime Scene Technicians

For crime scene technicians, it pays to have a strong stomach and a sense of adventure. These trained professionals apply scientific principles and the latest technologies in their quest for justice. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS 2024) puts crime scene technicians in the forensic science technician category. According to the BLS, the demand for these forensic professionals is expected to increase by 14 percent from 2023 to 2033, which is much faster than the average for all occupations in the same decade (4 percent).

It should be noted that some subspecialties are growing faster than others. For instance, subfields of forensic science such as digital computer forensics and DNA specialties are expected to become dominant, growing fields in forensic science in years to come.

As might be expected, most crime scene technicians will be employed by state and local governments in the law enforcement division (BLS 2024). While some technicians are officers themselves, many are civilians as well. The BLS indicates that while a master’s degree is not required to pursue this career, in a competitive job market, it can be helpful for job seekers to have an advanced level of education.

Salaries for crime scene technicians can largely depend on their experience level and the city and state where they decide to work. The median annual pay for the forensic science technician career is $64,940.

In more detailed terms, here is a breakdown of the salary percentiles among all forensic science technicians in the country (BLS May 2023):

	United States
Number of Forensic Science Technicians Employed	17,520
Annual Mean Wage	$71,540
10th percentile	$41,410
25th percentile	$50,480
50th percentile	$64,940
75th percentile	$84,720
90th percentile	$107,490

Education and Licensure Requirements for Crime Scene Technicians

There are no governmental requirements for crime scene technician licensure or education. According to Career One Stop (2024), 34 percent of forensic science technicians have a bachelor’s degree, while an additional 13 percent have an associate’s degree or some college with no degree. The same site indicates that 15 percent of those in the profession have a master’s or doctoral degree. Typically, a higher level of education equates to more opportunities and higher salaries for advanced degree holders.

While licensure is also not required, crime scene technicians may choose to pursue certification. The Forensic Science Accreditation Board (FSAB) has accredited several relevant certifications. These certifications include specialties such as criminalistics and document examination. The International Association for Identification offers three certifications that are targeted at crime scene investigation specifically:

Certified Crime Scene Investigator
Certified Crime Scene Analyst
Certified Senior Crime Scene Analyst

These certifications are not required to find employment, but after gaining some field experience they can help obtain promotions and increased responsibilities.

Skills & Personality Traits of the Successful Crime Scene Technician

Communication skills: Technicians are often called upon to write reports jointly with law enforcement or other specialists. They may even be called upon to testify in court and must be familiar with the documentation protocols.
Composure: Due to the sometimes shocking nature of crime scenes, it’s crucial that these professionals are able to maintain their presence of mind in order to do their jobs effectively. They should be comfortable working with a range of crimes such as homicides, sexual assaults, robberies, and other often graphic subjects.
Critical thinking and analytical skills: Crime scene technicians have to match physical evidence from crimes (e.g., DNA, fingerprints, etc.) to databases of suspects. This also requires a knowledge of scientific tests and methods.
Attention to detail: In order to help collect and analyze evidence, it is crucial to notice inconsistencies and subtle changes to crime settings.
Math and science abilities: The analysis of crime scenes can require some background in statistics or physical sciences.

These skills and personality traits are also recommended among closely related professions such as forensic investigators, crime scene investigators, criminalists, criminalistic officers, and evidence technicians. There is substantial overlap in the job responsibilities as well, which are detailed below.

Role Requirements for Becoming a Crime Scene Technician

The BLS reports that crime scene technicians typically have extensive on-the-job training before they are assigned to work cases independently or testify in court. They normally work under the purview of more experienced crime scene technicians, investigators, and law enforcement professionals to learn the laboratory specialties and reporting methods. They may be required to complete proficiency exams or seek approval from an accrediting body for certain subfields of crime scene investigations. The responsibilities of a crime scene technician can include:

Detecting, collecting, and cataloging evidence from crime scenes
Analyzing evidence using chemical, biological, or physical tests
Consulting with experts in related fields to reconstruct crime scenes
Maintaining lab equipment and portable evidence collection kits
Evaluating data and presenting findings in a manner that can hold up in court
Writing reports on features of crime scenes such as fingerprint detection, blood spatter analysis, and other features

A majority of forensic science technicians work in state and local government in police departments, laboratories, morgues, and coroner offices. They can anticipate working in an office, a lab, in the field, or all three. They may even be expected to travel throughout their jurisdiction to reach crime scenes.

Crime scene technicians who specialize in fieldwork can be expected to work varying schedules, including nights and overtime depending on when crimes occur. Those who specialize in lab analyses normally work a standard workweek.

Steps to Becoming a Crime Scene Technician

There are several different paths to becoming a crime scene technician. Having at least an associate degree in forensic sciences, criminal justice, crime scene technology, or a related discipline is typical. Depending on the employing organization, having at least a bachelor’s degree in a field such as chemistry or biology may be advisable.

Successful candidates normally complete courses in mathematics and science, as well as forensics classes if available. Following is the most common path to becoming a crime scene technician. Note that the following path is only applicable to civilian technicians. Those who want to become crime scene technicians via the law enforcement path will need to attend the police academy either before or after college.

Step 1: Graduate from high school (four years)

All but four percent of crime scene technicians have a high school diploma or GED, making this step essentially required, according to Career One Stop (2024). A strong foundation in lab sciences like chemistry and biology will also help in taking the next steps toward this career.

Step 2: Pursue an undergraduate education (two to four years)

After high school, aspiring crime scene technicians should pursue an undergraduate education to find employment. There are both associate and bachelor-level degrees available in related subjects. Some of the majors students may want to pursue include chemistry, biology, and forensic science. An undergraduate program is also a good time to pursue internships or other work opportunities that allow students to gain experience in the field. Work experience coupled with a strong science background and experience in a lab is the best combination for finding work in the next step.

Step 3: Get entry-level work (timeline varies)

After obtaining an undergraduate degree, most prospective crime scene technicians should be able to find entry-level work with a local or state law enforcement agency. This is when recent graduates can look to the professional network they developed at college and professional organizations such as the International Crime Scene Investigators Association (ICSIA). While standard job sites will also list opportunities for crime scene technicians, having a personal connection with the department typically gives candidates a leg up. As part of their candidacy for law enforcement agencies, crime scene technicians will typically need to complete a successful background check and undergo physical and psychological evaluations.

Step 4: Consider certification (timeline varies)

While professional certification is not required to work as a crime scene investigator, recognized certification can help obtain new opportunities. As noted above, the most relevant certifications for crime scene technicians come from the IAI. Full requirements for each certification are available on the IAI website, but the minimum required experience is one year for the Crime Scene Investigator certification.

Step 5 (optional): Pursue graduate education (two years) or more

After gaining some professional experience, those crime scene technicians who want to grow in their career, find new professional opportunities, or even teach may want to pursue more academic training. Both master’s and doctoral-level degrees are available with a forensic science focus. However, it is important to note that these programs rarely focus on crime scene investigation and concentrate more on what goes on in the laboratory.

While becoming a crime scene or forensic technician can be an exciting career move, evaluating the pros and cons of this type of work environment is important. As with any professional decision, be sure to consult the Bureau of Labor Statistics for the latest information on the growth and availability of work in various states and municipalities.

Farheen Gani

Writer

Internship List – 25 Cool Forensic Science Internships (2025)

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesInternship List – 25 Cool Forensic Science Internships (2025)

Completing a degree in the forensic sciences or in the natural sciences often requires more than just studying. It may also involve gaining real-world experience through an internship. Rather than sitting around answering phones in a crime lab, some internships can provide an invaluable opportunity to gain knowledge and expertise in this field.

Below, we’ve compiled a list of 25 internships that may interest those working on a forensic science or criminal justice degree. Many are available over a semester, or, if not, offered through a summer opportunity.

Typically, forensic science internships like these are found through the crime labs of state or regional police departments and law enforcement agencies. However, if no one is listed for a particular state or region, don’t be afraid to call regional police departments and similar agencies to see what might be available. It doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist because it is not listed here. Sometimes it just takes a phone call to get the ball rolling.

Most importantly, no matter what kind of internship a forensic science student pursues, they should be able to work under a professional forensic scientist in the field and gain new skills and knowledge important in finding that post-college job.

List of Forensic Science Internships

Washington, D.C. Department of Forensic Sciences

The Department of Forensic Sciences has four options for internships. The first is a programmatic internship for junior or senior undergraduate students. Interns could help with administrative tasks or the streamlining of lab processes and participate with research and writing. They should be studying in a field such as criminal justice, forensic science, law, public health, or similar. The department also offers research and joint-agency internships.

Second, there is a research internship for master’s or doctoral students. They will work under legal counsel, management, or scientists. If the student’s area of research is relevant to the internship, they can even complete some additional research while completing this internship. The third option is a STEM internship for high schoolers. These juniors or seniors must be enrolled in a District of Columbia STEM-specific program. Notably, intern, fellow, and volunteer opportunities at the DFS are unpaid and at-will.

Connecticut Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection

Connecticut’s Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection is looking for students studying in areas that include criminal justice, communications, information systems, and more. Interns receive research and special assignments in these non-paid positions but are given college credit upon program completion.

The primary goal of this internship is to provide students with a solid understanding of how the Department works. To assist with this, interns rotate through various sections of the Department and perform various functions. Based on a student’s knowledge and expertise, they may have more hands-on responsibilities in some roles versus others.

Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC)

The FLETC College Intern Program (CIP) provides opportunities for college students majoring in criminology, criminal justice, information technology, business, forensic science, and social science-related fields of study to participate in a federal law enforcement training environment. This college intern program is offered in one session consisting of eight weeks. At the time of application, applicants will be required to elect whether to serve a law enforcement or non-law enforcement internship.

Law enforcement interns will spend fifty percent of their time completing worthwhile work to advance the FLETC’s mission of training. Non-law enforcement interns will complete challenging administrative projects that provide insights into how various business lines support this mission. Both types of interns will spend the remaining fifty percent of their auditing basic and advanced training courses.

National Homeland Security STEM

The National Homeland Security STEM Summer Internship Program is available to college juniors and seniors, enabling them to work with Homeland Security professionals and researchers during the summer for up to a 10-week period. Students are given a $1,000 stipend each week, for up to $10,000 total, and will conduct research into the Department of Homeland Security mission-relevant areas.

The focus of this program is to give students hands-on comprehensive training that can ultimately benefit Homeland Security. There are also other internship options in nuclear forensics, nuclear science, or research. Positions vary across the U.S.

Orange County Alternate Defender’s Office

In the Legal Assistant Intern program at Orange County Alternate Defender’s Office interns may work with investigators, trial attorneys, secretaries, and paralegals. Duties may include indexing information and organizing discovery; copying and filing case files; summarizing witness statements; interacting with court staff to file court motions; preparing and serving agency subpoenas; picking up cases, discovery, and records from various agencies; delivering clothing and legal mail to the jail; and serving court orders at the O.C. Sheriff’s Department. They may also be asked to conduct internet research related to various forensic experts and issues. Interns will take part in strategic and tactical discussions on defense theories. Whenever possible, interns are encouraged to attend court proceedings, especially jury trials.

Applicants must currently be enrolled in an accredited college or university and have completed at least two years of undergraduate studies or achieved an associate’s degree in forensics, criminal justice, sociology, psychology, political science, pre-law, government studies, or related fields. Recent graduates who have completed their degree in one of the listed fields are also eligible to apply.

Interns will spend a minimum 12 to 16 hours per week for a minimum of three months or up to six months. Although this is an unpaid position, interns are offered an opportunity to build resumes, explore career options, gain hands-on experience in a legal setting, and network with professionals in their fields of interest. This internship offers recent graduates and current students an opportunity to experience real-life situations within a legal office that complement their career goals and academic studies.

Honors Internship Program at the FBI

This program is available to undergraduates in a field such as accounting, cyber, law, and STEM. This is a 10-week paid internship with a direct pipeline to a job in the FBI, so these appointments are competitive and lucrative. Applicants must be currently enrolled in their institution. Most students complete this internship in the summer between their junior and senior years of college.

As part of this internship, students will analyze data, develop streamlined internal communication systems, and support divisions with audits. Duties will vary based on the department, job title, and the student’s skills and education.

Bureau of Criminal Apprehension, Minnesota Department of Public Safety

This internship, offered through the Minnesota Department of Public Safety, allows college students to observe forensic scientists at work and become involved in a laboratory project. Students must be a college or graduate program senior studying in a field such as biology, criminalistics, forensic science, or something similar. Students can expect to participate in an extensive literature review, research, laboratory experiments, oral presentations, and data compilation.

Internships are ten to 16 weeks long, non-paid, and available in St. Paul and Bemidji. There are spring, summer, and fall deadlines, so students have the chance to complete their internship when it is most convenient for them.

The Center for Forensic Science Research & Education

This ten-week internship is located just outside of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the CFSRE. Designed for undergraduate and graduate students, candidates can apply for one of three separate sections, including forensic biology, forensic toxicology, or forensic chemistry. In addition to hands-on laboratory training, students also undertake independent mock casework, practice chain of custody, work under a chain of custody, perform validation studies and analyses, write reports, and undergo courtroom testimony training leading to a mock trial as part of the internship.

The end goal of this program is to prepare students with the lab, management, and communication skills they need to work in forensic science. A $3,000 bench fee is required from all interns accepted to this program. Scholarships are available.

New York City Department of Investigation

The NYC DOI’s internship program offers hands-on experience to law school students, college students, and graduate students. It runs three internship sessions throughout the year, each lasting between nine and twelve weeks, for up to 35 hours a week. This internship program offers brown bag lunches that feature speakers from the law enforcement profession who share their knowledge in criminal justice, investigations, and the law; and field trips that introduce interns to the New York City government.

Internship opportunities include investigative internship, outreach intern- OIG NYPD internship, legal internship, forensic auditing internship, data analyst internship, information technology internship, and public administrative internship.

Candidates selected for the forensic auditing internship will be responsible for conducting programmatic and financial audits and reviews; analyzing and examining financial reports and data; conducting reviews of subpoenaed records; conducting interviews; preparing reports; testifying at hearing and court proceedings; and doing research to develop investigative leads. The candidates may also be required to work with other prosecutorial agencies and provide support to other squads within DOI.

Naval Criminal Investigative Service

The NCIS, a federal law enforcement agency examining felony-level offenses related to the Navy and Marine Corps, provides two internships to qualified candidates. The NCIS Honors Intern Program is open to undergraduate (juniors and seniors) and graduate students interested in criminal intelligence and acquisitions, forensic science, and more. The internship is paid and provides valuable hands-on experience.

Placements are typically at the NCIS headquarters in Quantico, last 10 weeks, and require 40 hours a week of work. NCIS also offers the Wounded Warrior Internship for those in the Department of Defense’s Operation Warfighter Program. These interns are either awaiting medical retirement or will return to active duty. This internship aims to provide participants with employment-ready skills.

Miami-Dade Public Safety Training Institute

Students interested in this internship through the Miami-Dade Police Department will find an internship program that introduces them to various aspects of police work, including forensic services, homicide, robbery, special victims unit, uniform patrol, and much more. The internship is observation-only and open to juniors or seniors in college or graduate students majoring in criminal justice or a similar field.

Fall and spring internships are 16 weeks long, while summer internships are only 12 weeks. Interns are expected to work Monday through Friday for at least eight hours a day, and 40 hours a week for their internship.

Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department (CMPD)

The Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department offers summer internships to undergraduate or graduate students enrolled in a college or university program. Students are expected to work 40 hours a week during this eight-week program and are paid $19 per hour.

During the internship program, students become sworn law enforcement officers with CMPD. They can work with investigative, support services, and/or field services groups to experience the duties and responsibilities of law enforcement professionals. This gives students a unique perspective into a law enforcement and forensics career before completing an academy or additional education.

Department of Maryland State Police

Students working on a forensic science degree or a degree in life or physical sciences with a minor in forensic science can look for internship opportunities available through the Forensic Science Division of the Department of Maryland State Police. This internship is a great way to gain experience in this field and network with professional forensics scientists. Students must apply directly to the unit they want to intern with. Units include biology, chemistry, pattern evidence, trace evidence, crime scenes, administrative support, and more.

Applicants must have completed at least their sophomore year of college to be eligible to apply, and students above this level, including graduate students, can also submit applications. Summer and semester internships, all unpaid, are available to interested students. Applicants who already have lab experience or extensive forensics coursework will receive preference.

Georgia Bureau of Investigation

Students interested in interning for the Georgia Bureau of Investigation should pursue a degree in criminal justice or a similar field. This internship gives students real-world experience in criminal justice and forensics. Students must be juniors or seniors in college or first-year graduate students to be eligible to apply.

All applicants must pass a GBI polygraph examination to be accepted into the program and be available to work at least 30 hours a week for at least eight weeks. There are extensive disqualifying factors for this internship, so candidates should review the requirements carefully to ensure they have the qualifications and haven’t engaged in activities that will inhibit them from being accepted.

Montgomery County Crime Lab

The Miami Valley Regional Crime Laboratory in Ohio has internship opportunities available to juniors or seniors in college majoring in forensic sciences or natural science. The internship is unpaid, but students will gain knowledge about the various laboratory disciplines.

Rather than being structured like an apprenticeship, this internship rotates students through different laboratory parts to gain a wide breadth of experience. At the end of the internship, students will complete a research project. The topic is decided collaboratively, as it must benefit the laboratory and the student.

City of Philadelphia Toxicology Lab

Juniors and seniors in college who have taken courses such as analytical and organic chemistry can look for internships available through the medical examiner’s office with the City of Philadelphia. Students can apply to a specific unit, including bereavement services, toxicology, fatality review, and pathology. Interns should be available to invest at least 18 hours a week at the lab.

The toxicology internship is the most robust of the programs offered. Students receive an orientation and may learn about how case assignments are made and about the final steps in preparing a toxicology report. If time permits, students can work on a special project providing them with hands-on experience. Spring, summer, and fall options exist, so students can complete their internship year-round.

Mesa Police Department

Various internships are available through the Mesa Police Department, in Arizona, including in the department’s forensic science section. Interns in this program will be able to explore both sworn-in and civilian career paths within the Mesa Police Department. They will gain skills through hands-on training and specialized classroom sessions to teach critical skills. It is also an excellent way to network with forensics professionals.

Interns will receive exposure and hands-on training in areas such as forensics, criminal investigations, communications, technology, community outreach, and much more. Applicants must be enrolled in a college or technical school and must be a junior or senior in forensics.

North Carolina State Crime Lab

For college students pursuing a career in forensic science, the North Carolina State Crime Lab (NCSCL) offers internships at all laboratory locations and in all forensic disciplines. The NCSCL internship program is designed to provide college students and recent graduates interested in forensic science with the opportunity to experience the inner workings of a crime laboratory. Interns are assigned to one section in the laboratory where they will work on research projects.

Interns must be at least a rising junior in, or graduate of, a four-year laboratory science degree program such as chemistry, biology, physics, forensic science, or computer related program. Internships are unpaid and interns will be required to work a minimum of 20 hours per week.

Washington DC Office of the Chief Medical Examiner

For those interested in working close to the heart of the federal government, the DC Office of the Chief Medical Examiner offers several internships for qualified applicants. The OCME provides opportunities for students of forensic anthropology, forensic photography, death investigations, toxicology, digital imaging, epidemiology, and other areas.

This is a highly competitive internship. To apply, candidates must submit an application, a compelling statement of interest, two letters of recommendation, a current resume, and official transcripts. Once a candidate has been accepted, a student’s college must establish an interagency agreement with the OCME before the intern’s start date.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

The CIA offers a wealth of internships for aspiring forensics professionals. Among its paid undergraduate offerings (also referred to as “co-op programs”) are positions in intelligence analysis, cyber exploitation investigations, cybersecurity, digital forensics, and other fields related to forensics. Not surprisingly, admission is very competitive.

For example, the undergraduate internship/co-op program in cyber operations and mission enablement requires applicants to have an undergraduate degree in cybersecurity (or a related field), at least a 3.0 GPA, availability to work two 90-day tours prior to graduation, and excellent interpersonal and communication skills. Working with the CIA can prove an invaluable professional experience and boost one’s resume. All positions require relocation to the DC metropolitan area.

In addition to internships, the CIA offers scholarships to outstanding students and paid fellowships for students attending four-year Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs)

Texas State University

The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS) offers month-long unpaid non-credit internships each summer. Interns in this program will assist with the day-to-day operations of FACTS, including processing human remains, data management, and the donation program.

As part of this program, students can also anticipate learning how to catalog skeletal remains. If students have more advanced skills and training, they may help identify bodies of undocumented border crosses found by authorities in Texas.

Admission to this internship is competitive, and students may be required to pass a competency exam to be admitted to the program. While students in this program are unpaid, they are invited to complete the FACTS workshops in June for free. This includes the human osteology intensive, outdoor human remains recovery, entomology and taphonomy, and the forensic anthropology methods workshop.

Forensicon

Forensicon is a computer forensics consulting company based out of Chicago, Illinois. They offer internships to students with a computer programming background who want to apply their skills to a real company. Interns they bring on will help write programs, develop in-house software tools, and assist with automation.

Typically, interns work on a specific internal need and develop a tool to help solve the problem. Often, interns are offered post-internship job opportunities at Forensicon, so this can be a great way to get a foot in the door in computer forensics.

Massachusetts State Police

Students can complete an unpaid internship through the Massachusetts State Police (MSP). Internships are offered three times a year for fall, spring, or summer semesters and students must earn college credit while completing their program. Applicants must be juniors, seniors, or graduate students and be able to pass a rigorous background check.

There are several internship tracks to choose from, but forensics students will be most interested in the forensic science track. This track is open to college students with science/laboratory-focused majors. Placements will be within the Forensics Services Division (FSD).

Westchester County Division of Forensic Sciences

The Westchester County Division of Forensic Sciences offers shadow opportunities or internships to college students from the Tri-State area and shadow opportunities to local high school students interested in pursuing a career in forensic science.

This internship program is designed to meet the needs of college students in forensic science majors who require an internship as part of their core curriculum. Forensic science students who do not require an internship and students majoring in related laboratory sciences will be considered based on availability. Interns may observe the analysis of physical evidence in the following areas: trace evidence, forensic biology (DNA), forensic imaging, and forensic chemistry.

Kansas Bureau of Investigation (KBI) Forensic Science Laboratory

The Kansas Bureau of Investigation Forensic Science Laboratory internship program offers competitive, paid internships to qualified undergraduate and graduate students. The internship may be a part of the intern’s academic program requirements or the intern’s independent career-building initiative. Priority will be given to those working towards a degree relevant to the field.

Interns will gain experience in an accredited forensic science laboratory and contribute to the field through research or validation projects.

Methodology

The following criteria were used to compile 25 cool forensic science internships. Not all criteria applied to all internships, but many met the following guidelines:

1. Broad availability: Although some preference may be given to students living in an area, most of the internships on this list are available to applicants statewide and nationwide.
2. Engaged in hands-on experience: Many internships offer a real-world-based experience, allowing interns to observe forensic experts at work or work directly under a forensic scientist’s supervision.
3. Advancing knowledge: Most of these internships sought to expand students’ knowledge in forensic science through direct observation and/or research skills. Some additionally require the completion of an intern project.

Farheen Gani

Writer

What Can I Do With a Degree in Forensic Psychology?

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesWhat Can I Do With a Degree in Forensic Psychology?

Forensic psychology is a field that combines the science of psychology with criminal justice and law enforcement to understand human behavior as it relates to illegal activity. Forensic psychologists serve at the intersection of the legal system and mental health. The word forensic in Latin means “from the open court,” and the root word “psyche” comes from the Greek word meaning “breath, soul, mind.” The American Board of Forensic Psychology (ABFP) defines forensic psychology as “the application of scientific principles and practices to the adversary process where scientists with specialized knowledge play a role.”

Forensic psychologists share one goal through research and clinical practices: to understand what motivates people to commit crimes and use this knowledge to prevent future crimes. Forensic psychology involves studying past crimes, questioning suspects and convicted criminals, and conducting clinical outcomes to become legal evidence. By analyzing and interpreting the minds and habits of people committing crimes, forensic psychologists can more accurately and compassionately serve justice by using documentation to prevent crimes.

This specialized field of psychology is available to undergraduate and graduate-level degree holders. There are numerous forensic psychology degree and certificate programs on campus and online. While clinical and research positions require a master’s degree and a license to practice, there are forensic psychology positions for undergraduate degree holders to pursue and determine if this blended disciplinary profession is the right career field for them.

As violent crime rates continue to increase, forensic psychology careers are predicted to be in high demand. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) shows that in the coming decade, psychologists will grow faster than the national rate for all occupations (7 percent) and create 14,000 jobs between 2023 and 2033 (BLS 2024).

In addition, the pay for psychologists is well above the national average for all occupations at $101,170 per year (BLS May 2023), and PayScale.com (2025) shows the average forensic psychologist salary is $80,876 based on 180 self-reported salaries in November 2024. Unfortunately, the BLS doesn’t keep specific forensic psychology occupational data but shows the average annual salary for clinical and counseling psychologists was $106,600 (BLS May 2023).

Keep reading to learn about career opportunities for forensic psychologists with undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral degrees.

Forensic Psychologist Undergraduate Degree Careers

An undergraduate degree in forensic psychology can open many career doors. Still, it is essential to recognize that a graduate- or doctoral-level education is required for positions that provide forensic psychology services and evaluations.

For example, counselors who see patients in clinical and research-based settings must have a master’s degree or higher to be professionally licensed psychologists. In addition, a certain number of supervised clinical hours are required to obtain and maintain licensure.

That being said, there are still relevant careers for students who have earned a bachelor of science (BS) in psychology or focused their coursework on forensics.

Here is a list of careers one can enter with an undergraduate psychology degree which can lead to a future career in forensic psychology.

Become a Victim Advocate

A victim advocate can play an essential role in the criminal justice process. These individuals work closely with crime victims to help shepherd them through the legal system with minimal trauma. The exact duties of a victim advocate will depend on what type of crime the victim has experienced but may include such things as:

Educating the victim on their legal rights
Being present during law enforcement questioning
Attending court with the victim
Helping the victim to find legal representation if necessary
Assisting with the complexities of reporting paperwork

Generally speaking, victim advocates do not need to be certified. Still, certification through the National Organization for Victim Assistance (NOVA) is an option for those who wish to advance in their career. According to Indeed.com (2025), the average annual base salary for victim advocates, also known as waymakers, is $52,676.

Become a Court Liaison

Working as a court liaison officer is another way graduates of a bachelor’s degree program in forensic psychology can participate in the criminal justice system. Court liaisons play an essential role by acting as a go-between for criminal courts and local police departments. Court liaisons are not sworn police officers but work closely with law enforcement. These officers may perform administrative tasks for the court, including reviewing paperwork or registering sex offenders.

According to data from Salary.com (2025), court liaisons earn anywhere from $40,971 to $53,055 per year.

Become a Law Enforcement Officer

A bachelor’s degree in forensic psychology can be an important stepping stone to a career as a law enforcement officer. Although most police departments do not require a bachelor’s degree to apply to the police academy, the foundation that a forensic psychology degree can provide may be beneficial during the application and initial training process and may assist new officers in more quickly ascending to more higher-ranked positions such as a detective.

According to Salary.com (2025), salaries for law enforcement officers vary by state, but the national average is $65,000 annually.

Become a Probation Officer

Being a probation officer is another exciting career path for those who want to avoid going to the police academy and start walking a beat. Instead, these individuals work with offenders recently released from jail to ensure that they are adequately employed and housed so as not to re-offend. Again, the knowledge of criminal justice and psychology can be beneficial in dealing with these potentially volatile situations.

According to the BLS (2024), probation officers and correctional treatment specialists earned a median salary of $61,800.

Become a Social Worker

While many social worker positions require a master’s degree, some are accessible for those with undergraduate degrees in social work, psychology, or sociology. Social workers with undergraduate degrees work in direct-service positions as case workers or mental health assistants. Social workers identify people and community needs by assessing, researching, and providing support services such as addiction recovery, domestic violence support, or career transition services.

In May 2023, the BLS showed the median annual salary for social workers was $58,380.

Forensic Psychologist Master’s Degree Careers

More career options open up with graduate-level education in forensic psychology. However, it is essential to note that while candidates with master’s degrees are eligible to be licensed mental health counselors, becoming a licensed psychologist requires a doctoral degree. However, there are several forensic psychology-adjacent options to consider with a master’s degree.

The following are career options available to those holding a master of science (MS) degree in forensic psychology.

Become a Jury Consultant

A jury consultant works with legal teams to determine how to select the best jury for that team’s desired outcome and proceed with the case when the jury has been chosen. In addition, forensic psychologists can use their knowledge of criminal justice and human behavior to help select desirable jurors based on the available information.

According to data from Salary.com (2025), jury consultants earn anywhere from $56,779 to $82,045 per year in the United States.

Become a Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor

Most states have counseling licensure processes for graduates from accredited counseling master’s degree programs. Licensed counselors can provide counseling in various outpatient clinical environments, including group homes, substance abuse treatment centers, and correctional facilities.

According to the BLS (2024), mental counselors earn a median annual salary of $53,710 annually.

Become a Juvenile Offenders Counselor

Juveniles who enter the criminal justice system are at extremely high risk for recidivism and have often been the victims of crimes — from neglect to physical and sexual abuse — themselves. This makes them prime for counseling services from a licensed counselor to avoid self-destructive behaviors and learn coping skills to help them thrive as they navigate their teenage years and approach adulthood.

According to Salary.com (2025), juvenile court counselors earn anywhere from $62,304 to $77,745, depending on their responsibilities and living costs in a particular area.

Become a Research Assistant

Many master’s level programs in forensic psychology include a research element, allowing students to conduct forensic psychological research and analyze data. Master’s graduates can assist licensed psychologists in research in the forensic field or use this experience to prepare them for doctoral work in forensic psychology.

According to the BLS (May 2023), social science research assistants earn a median annual salary of $56,400.

Forensic Psychologist Doctoral Degree Careers

With a doctoral degree and the training hours required for state licensure, graduates from psychology doctoral programs are eligible for licensing. This opens up many more career possibilities involving clinical psychology examination, treatment, and careers in academia and research.

It is important to note that students may pursue a doctor of psychology (PsyD) or a doctor of philosophy (PhD) degree. Both allow graduates to become licensed psychologists with PsyD programs focused on clinical treatment while PhD programs focus on research and teaching.

Become a Forensic Psychologist

Many students who pursue a graduate degree in forensic psychology do so with the ultimate goal of becoming forensic psychologists. While forensic psychologists can fill several roles, they often work as consultants for law enforcement agencies. For example, those who work with the FBI may profile criminals, while other agencies may evaluate offenders or even work with the officers themselves.

Forensic psychologists can also work directly in a jail setting, counseling offenders for release or helping them cope with the stress of incarceration and treating any underlying mental health issues.

PayScale.com (2025) shows that the average annual base salary for forensic psychologists is $80,876, not including bonuses.

Become an Expert Witness

Forensic psychologists are often called on as expert witnesses in criminal trials; indeed, some make this process an entire career. An expert witness in this context can answer speculative questions about the accused’s state of mind, can refer to professional psychological literature and studies, and may be able to give juries a better picture of how psychology plays a role in a particular crime.

Expert witness salaries vary widely depending on job responsibilities, level of education, and years of experience. However, according to Zippia.com (2024), the average salary for an expert witness is $65,959 per year.

Become a Psychology Professor or Instructor

For those with an advanced degree in forensic psychology, academia is another option. This career is suited to those that earn a PhD. Professors may teach undergraduate and graduate-level courses while maintaining a research practice. Teaching can be a great way to spread a passion for forensic psychology.

According to the BLS (2024), postsecondary psychology teachers earn a median annual salary of $82,140 per year.

Become a Psychology Researcher

Those with doctoral degrees who want to expand the world’s understanding of criminal minds may choose to focus their careers on research, conducting clinical studies, and writing papers for publication. This career can go hand-in-hand with a teaching career or be a separate pursuit. Clinical research is best suited to those with a PhD in forensic psychology.

ZipRecruiter (2025) states that the average research psychologist salary in the United States as of November 2024 is $99,577 per year.

Rachel Drummond, MEd

Writer

What is Forensic Engineering? Applications & An Expert’s Perspective

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesWhat is Forensic Engineering? Applications & An Expert’s Perspective

While most engineers dislike the confrontation of legal work, I find it fascinating. This unique blend of science, problem-solving, and legal work makes forensic engineering a distinct and impactful field.”

Matt Baretich, PhD, President of Baretich Engineering

Forensic engineering is a fascinating intersection of engineering expertise and investigative problem-solving. At its core, the field uses engineering principles to determine the causes of failures in structures, systems, or devices. This information is often crucial in legal disputes, regulatory investigations, and safety improvements.

Forensic engineering encompasses various subfields, each specializing in failure analysis and investigation. Mechanical forensic engineers delve into failures in machinery, vehicles, and structural components, while electrical specialists focus on issues like circuit malfunctions and power system failures. Fire research engineers investigate the origins and causes of fires, often determining whether they were accidental or intentional. Other subfields include environmental forensics, which examines contamination and ecological impacts, and materials science, which focuses on analyzing failures caused by defects or degradation in materials. This diversity allows forensic engineering to address various challenges across industries, making it an essential discipline in safety and accountability.

Forensic engineering touches nearly every industry, from construction and manufacturing to healthcare and transportation. This article explores the fundamentals of forensic engineering, its applications, challenges, and insights from Matt Baretich, PE, PhD, an experienced forensic biomedical engineer.

Meet the Expert: Matt Baretich, PhD

Dr. Matt Baretich is the president of Baretich Engineering, Inc.—a Fort Collins, Colorado-based firm specializing in clinical and forensic engineering. He also works for Lower Mainland Biomedical Engineering in Vancouver, BC.

With decades of experience in engineering and healthcare, Dr. Baretich has held prominent roles, such as director of engineering services at the University of Colorado Hospital and director of bioengineering at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center.

Dr. Baretich earned a PhD in hospital and health administration from the University of Iowa, an MS in biomedical engineering, and a BS in electrical engineering from Iowa State University. A licensed professional engineer (PE), he holds multiple certifications in patient safety, healthcare risk management, and clinical engineering. His expertise and leadership have positioned him as a leading figure in the intersection of engineering, healthcare technology, and safety.

ForensicsColleges.com: What inspired you to pursue a career in forensic engineering?

Dr. Baretich: I’m a biomedical engineer by training and a consultant who works with hospitals on how they maintain their medical equipment. Almost 30 years ago, one of my mentors suggested I take on a legal case related to forensic engineering.

While most engineers dislike the confrontation of legal work, I find it fascinating. This unique blend of science, problem-solving, and legal work makes forensic engineering a distinct and impactful field.

ForensicsColleges.com: What challenges do you face when conducting investigations?

Dr. Baretich: One of the key challenges in conducting forensic investigations is navigating the broad range of contexts in which devices are used rather than focusing narrowly on a single specialization. While it is common to encounter cases where harm has occurred and a medical device is involved, it is rare for the device itself to have failed outright.

Instead, investigations often center on questions such as whether the device was well-designed, whether its instructional materials were adequate, whether it was suitable for the specific application, or whether its complexity led to use error.

Frequently, attorneys approach with the assumption that the device malfunctioned, but the evidence often points to issues related to how the device was used rather than inherent flaws in its design. My expertise lies in understanding this broader context, drawing on experience as a biomedical engineer and consultant for hospitals. I focus on the intersection of technology, training, and practical application rather than the narrow technical details of a single device. Bringing scientific expertise into the legal system improves the likelihood of a fair outcome.

Key Applications of Forensic Engineering

Forensic engineering is pivotal in analyzing incidents where systems or devices may have contributed to harm. In healthcare, for example, Dr. Baretich often investigates cases involving medical devices.

Biomedical Equipment

“A typical case might involve harm to a patient due to equipment like ventilators, defibrillators, or infusion pumps,” Dr. Baretich explained. He added, “The medical device is one of many components, but determining its contribution to the harm is key.”

Beyond healthcare, forensic engineers address structural collapses, machinery failures, and environmental issues, making the field diverse in scope.

Structural Collapse

Structural collapses, such as those involving bridges, buildings, or dams, often require forensic engineers to determine whether design flaws, material failures, or external forces contributed to the incident. For example, forensic engineers examined the 2024 collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore, Maryland, to understand whether material defects and construction methods led to its failure, ultimately informing improvements in bridge safety standards.

Machine Failure

Machinery failures in industries like manufacturing, aviation, and automotive engineering are another significant focus. Engineers analyze mechanical systems to identify faults and improve future performance. One example is the investigation of turbine malfunctions in power plants, where forensic engineers identified design flaws causing mechanical stress, leading to critical upgrades in turbine design and operation protocols.

Environmental Impact

Environmental forensics is pivotal in investigating pollution sources, assessing contamination, and determining liability for ecological damage. A notable case involving a search for the source of environmental impact due to equipment failure was the Deep Water Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, where forensic engineers used 3D laser scanning and computer modeling to determine the causes of emergency valve failure and assess the contamination.

Fire Investigations

Additionally, forensic engineers are often involved in fire investigations, uncovering the origins and causes of fires to guide safety improvements and resolve legal disputes. For instance, after the 2017 Grenfell Tower fire in London, forensic engineers played a crucial role in analyzing the building’s materials and fire safety systems, leading to widespread changes in fire safety regulations for high-rise buildings.

This diversity highlights the field’s vital role in addressing complex challenges across engineering disciplines.

Tools and Techniques in Forensic Engineering

Modern forensic engineers rely on simple and sophisticated tools to reconstruct events and uncover truths. Sophisticated tools include advanced simulation software, data analysis algorithms, and imaging technologies like 3D laser scanning, which allow engineers to create detailed models and timelines of incidents for precise analysis and presentation.

One straightforward, yet valuable tool is the event log built into many medical devices.

“Many medical devices record when alarms occurred, what the alarms were, and even details like button presses and knob adjustments,” Dr. Baretich noted. “In cases involving ventilators, these logs help reconstruct a narrative of events, showing how a caregiver struggled with the device. It’s compelling evidence both for trial testimony and understanding real-world challenges.”

This reliance on cutting-edge technology highlights how forensic engineering merges traditional engineering with modern data analysis.

Challenges Faced by Forensic Engineers

Forensic engineers encounter numerous challenges, mainly when dealing with complex systems where user error or contextual factors are as critical as the technology itself.

“Most devices do what they are designed to do,” Dr. Baretich observed. “The questions often revolve around design adequacy, instructional material, and user context. For instance, was the device difficult to use, or was it a poor choice for the situation?”

Dr. Baretich emphasized the importance of a broad perspective: “I’m not just an expert on how a widget works. My value lies in understanding the context of use. Attorneys may want a narrowly specialized expert, but I’ve found that broader expertise is often more useful in these cases.”

Additionally, Dr. Baretich underscored the importance of neutrality in forensic engineering: “Some experts specialize on one side, like defending hospitals. I work for whoever needs my expertise. Approaching cases from a neutral perspective ensures credibility and avoids being seen as a ‘hired gun.’”

On Becoming a Forensic Engineer

Building a strong foundation in a core engineering discipline is crucial for those interested in pursuing forensic engineering. Most undergraduate programs focus on engineering principles, while more advanced degrees may offer forensic engineering specializations. For many, forensic engineering is learned on the job or through continuing education.

“I don’t know where you would go to school specifically for forensic biomedical engineering,” Dr. Baretich admitted. “I learned basic biomedical engineering and continue to practice in that field. This foundational expertise is essential before offering services in legal cases.”

Dr. Baretich also recommended joining professional organizations like the National Academy of Forensic Engineers (NAFE) to build connections and learn from others in the field. “Getting your first opportunity might come by chance, as it did for me, but keeping your eyes open for opportunities is key.”

The Essential Role of Forensic Engineering

Forensic engineering is a vital and intriguing field that bridges the gap between technical expertise and investigative inquiry. By analyzing failures, these engineers contribute to safety improvements, clarify legal contexts, and often prevent future disasters.

Forensic engineers are indispensable in uncovering the truth behind a medical device malfunction or determining the causes of structural failures. Dr. Baretich noted, “I find satisfaction in bringing scientific understanding into the legal system. It’s a unique way to make a meaningful impact.”

Forensic engineering offers a compelling career path for anyone drawn to the challenge of solving complex structural and process-oriented problems and contributing to justice.

Rachel Drummond, MEd

Writer

The Hottest Areas of R&D in Criminal Sciences

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesThe Hottest Areas of R&D in Criminal Sciences

People should trust that there are good, independent, and caring researchers out there trying to improve the system. That’s the biggest takeaway. I think many things in the current political and news environment have become so sensational.”

Dr. Jeremy Carter, PhD, Executive Associate Dean and Professor, Paul H. O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University Indianapolis

As crime becomes more sophisticated, so too must the tools and strategies used to investigate and combat it. With advancements in technology, criminal sciences are poised for significant transformation.

Researchers and professionals are exploring innovative approaches to tackle modern challenges, leveraging everything from artificial intelligence and machine learning to biotechnology and digital forensics. These cutting-edge technologies promise to enhance criminal investigations’ accuracy, efficiency, and effectiveness, offering new opportunities to solve cases that were once considered impenetrable.

Like any research field, criminal sciences encompass many sub-disciplines and focus areas, each with its distinct challenges and opportunities. What’s deemed most crucial or promising can vary significantly depending on the individual researcher or professional’s perspective and background. Some may prioritize advancements in digital forensics to counteract cybercrime, while others might hone in on biotechnology integration to improve forensic evidence analysis.

The diversity in research interests not only broadens the scope of the field but also accelerates progress by fostering a multidisciplinary approach to solving complex criminal issues. “If you ask what is the most important research, you will get ten different answers, and they might only overlap 20 percent,” notes Dr. Jeremy Carter, the executive associate dean and a professor at the Paul H. O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University Indianapolis.

The best place to look at what advances are making headway is to follow the funding. “Look at places like the National Institute of Justice, the Department of Justice, and the Bureau of Justice Assistance for grants they have funded. This will give you an idea of research and program developments that have won federal funding,” Notes Dr. Carter. “Generally, anything that relates to technology is always at the forefront. And it’s not just here’s the latest and greatest technology, but does the technology achieve or enhance outcomes of operational effectiveness, and what is the return on investment.”.

When exploring the future trajectory of criminal sciences, it’s crucial to consider expert opinions and insights, as they provide valuable perspectives on where the field is heading and its potential impacts. “People should trust that there are good, independent, and caring researchers out there trying to improve the system. That’s the biggest takeaway. I think many things in the current political and news environment have become so sensational. In reality, it’s just cities and states trying to figure out the best path forward,” notes Dr. Carter. “It’s our job as scholars to help lead the way down an evidence-based path forward to make that happen.”

As we delve into these exciting domains, it becomes clear that the future of criminal sciences relies heavily on embracing and integrating these innovative solutions. Continue reading to learn about the hottest areas of research and development in criminal science from Dr. Carter’s perspective.

Meet The Expert: Jeremy Carter, PhD

Dr. Jeremy Carter is the executive associate dean and a professor at the Paul H. O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University Indianapolis. With a PhD in criminal justice from Michigan State University, Dr. Carter’s research focuses on policing, law enforcement intelligence, crime analysis, and evidence-based policy. His work has been supported by the National Institute of Justice and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, among others.

He has served as a principal investigator on numerous projects and was the chair of the Standing Scientific Review Panel for the U.S. Department of Justice. He has been recognized with the President’s Award of Excellence by the International Association of Law Enforcement Intelligence Analysts.

Hardware Technology

According to a recent report, the forensic tech market swelled from $5.16 billion in 2023 to $5.64 billion in 2024. Dr. Carter believes this is one of the primary areas of emerging research, as companies nationwide are trying to figure out how to make tools that police forces can use.

However, it is not always straightforward: “If you think back to body-worn cameras, that was a prime example of a tool people thought would be easy to implement and that everyone could use. You can get a body-worn camera on Amazon for $80. It should be really easy, right?” asks Dr. Carter. “What they don’t realize are the infrastructure costs, the storage costs of all that data, and paying people to translate the footage into evidentiary value and maintain the chain of custody.”

Here are two hardware solutions where research is still emerging.

Gunshot Detection Technology

Gunshot detection technology utilizes acoustic sensors to detect the sound waves a gunshot produces and triangulate its location. This early warning system can alert law enforcement of potential gun violence events and, in some cases, even identify the type of firearm used. “They can then dispatch police to that location with more accuracy than someone calling 911 saying I heard gunshots to the west,” explains Dr. Carter.

However, this technology is still in its infancy, with many challenges that must be addressed. “In reality, all the research has shown that the technology does what it says but doesn’t add any operational value. Most gunshots are already called in by 911, and officers arrive pretty quickly, so there’s not that much benefit to it. Also, it’s incredibly expensive due to the infrastructure required, and it’s not always accurate,” says Dr. Carter.

Multiple Technology Responses

Another emerging field is the integration of multiple technologies to enhance operational effectiveness: “Some police departments are investigating how to use drones to respond to 911. You can pair gunshot detection, closed circuit cameras, and drones to have a unified or integrated response to certain calls,” notes Dr. Carter.

“Questions researchers are asking is if there is a critical incident going on, is there technology in place where I could tap into officers’ cameras and get a live feed? Are there cameras on their vehicles or drones that can be deployed to improve the operational responses? This can be critical in situations like school shootings where real-time information on the fly can help inform operations.”

AI Advances

One of the most significant innovation and research areas is using artificial intelligence (AI) in criminal sciences and law enforcement. From facial recognition technology to predictive policing, AI is revolutionizing how we approach criminal justice. “Machine learning and AI have value in helping organizations become more efficient with their resources. The question is how they can leverage AI or machine learning to expedite manual processes. Right now, policing takes a lot of human resource capital. However, how do you manage the potential risks, the effort to ensure people are trained to use it effectively, and identifying problems when it generates incorrect information in the law enforcement sphere?” asks Dr. Carter.

Facial Recognition

Facial recognition technology is one of the most controversial areas of AI research. While it has the potential to quickly and accurately identify suspects, there are concerns about accuracy and potential bias in the algorithms used: “A few years ago, Clearview created an app that used facial recognition to identify people. The idea was a police officer could come across a suspect who doesn’t have their ID on them or give a fake name or alias. The officer could hold their phone up and take a picture of their face, and the app would identify them correctly. This got a lot of pushback due to privacy concerns,” explains Dr. Carter.

Beyond identifying suspects, there are numerous potential uses of facial recognition technology in policing that could enhance operational efficiency and public safety. One possible application is crowd management and surveillance during major events or public gatherings. Facial recognition systems can quickly scan and identify individuals on watchlists or those with outstanding warrants, thereby preventing potential incidents before they escalate.

Security Measures

Another place where AI is making headway is in providing security. This also leverages facial recognition but in a different way. “For example, airports are critical infrastructure in our country and are places that have cameras with built-in AI for security reasons. They can identify people and give tem access to certain doors or locations. They can also flag suspicious behavior,” explains Dr. Carter.

“There can be a camera over a security door, and if someone is detected to be at that door for too long or they are being suspicious, it’ll bring it to the attention of someone responsible for monitoring the cameras. This area poses interesting opportunities for researchers to use AI and machine learning.”

Forensic Science

Forensic science is an area of criminal sciences that has received significant attention over the years. It involves applying scientific techniques to gather evidence from crime scenes, analyze it, and present it in court to assist with solving crimes. Forensic science has played a crucial role in solving many high-profile cases and has become an integral part of the criminal justice system. However, with technological advancements, this field is undergoing a dramatic transformation.

Digital Forensics

Digital forensics involves collecting and analyzing digital evidence from electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and tablets. In today’s digital age, criminals increasingly use technology to commit crimes or cover their tracks. As a result, digital forensics has become a crucial component of criminal investigations. It involves extracting data from electronic devices, analyzing it using specialized software, and presenting it in court as admissible evidence. With the proliferation of digital devices and the ever-evolving complexity of cybercrimes, digital forensics is an area of constant research and development.

Biometric Technology

Biometric technology, such as fingerprint analysis and facial recognition, has been used in criminal investigations for many years. However, advancements in this field have led to more sophisticated techniques to identify individuals with higher accuracy and speed. As biometrics become increasingly reliable and cost-effective, they are expected to play a more significant role in criminal investigations in the future.

Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity is another area of criminal sciences that has gained significant attention in recent years. With the increasing use of technology in all aspects of society, cybercriminals have become more sophisticated and pose a significant threat to individuals, organizations, and governments. “In this digital age, cybersecurity is going to be increasingly important. Especially as more of daily life and infrastructure move online. This creates a host of different challenges for researchers,” notes Dr. Carter.

Preventing Fraud

“Fraud is going to be even more rampant,” says Dr. Carter. “We have cases where people can take five videos off your social media page and use them to recreate your image and voice. That’s very problematic, especially nowadays, where teleconferencing is the norm. There are documented cases of people being defrauded because they thought they were speaking to someone, and it wasn’t them. It was a deepfake version of them. Researchers are working on how to detect and prevent this.”

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is another growing issue in our digital world. The anonymity and reach of the internet have made it easier for bullies to target their victims, leading to severe psychological consequences. Dr. Carter notes that there are algorithms that can detect cyberbullying on social media platforms and flag them for intervention.

Staffing Challenges

While it is not a very attractive problem, staffing challenges are an area for researchers: “The continued challenges with recruitment and retention in police departments and correctional agencies are a high priority. Criminal justice students like the ones from our program will have plenty of opportunities,” says Dr. Carter. “It is an area that needs a lot of research both in terms of an appropriate level of force and the resources from municipalities and states and federal agencies needed to support those roles and those missions.

He continues, “from an educational perspective, people should know that now more than ever, we need a workforce trained in criminal justice and public safety to serve our communities. We know the value of having good, informed, and educated citizens assume roles as police officers, corrections officers, and the people working in our criminal justice system.”

Policing Ethics

Ethics are essential in the criminal justice system, particularly in policing. Using AI and technology in law enforcement raises ethical concerns about privacy, accountability, and potential biases and is particularly interesting to researchers. “The balance of effective policies to combat crime and disorder with the realization of the disparate impact on marginalized communities is always going to be going to be an issue, and one we need to continue to study,” says Dr. Carter.

“Minneapolis is a great case study. Following the murder of George Floyd, there was a big push to reduce policing in marginalized communities that were historically communities of color. As time has passed, these communities have said, ‘Where are our police officers? We need this public service in our communities.’ Now, we must get back to serving those communities with equitable, just, and fair policing.”

Kimmy Gustafson

Writer

Kimmy Gustafson’s expertise and passion for investigative storytelling extends to the world of forensics, where she brings a wealth of knowledge and captivating narratives to readers seeking insights into this intriguing world. She has interviewed experts on little-known topics, such as how climate crimes are investigated and prosecuted, and has written for ForensicsColleges.com since 2019.

Kimmy has been a freelance writer for more than a decade, writing hundreds of articles on a wide variety of topics such as startups, nonprofits, healthcare, kiteboarding, the outdoors, and higher education. She is passionate about seeing the world and has traveled to over 27 countries. She holds a bachelor’s degree in journalism from the University of Oregon. When not working, she can be found outdoors, parenting, kiteboarding, or cooking.

How is DNA Fingerprinting Used to Crack Criminal Cases?

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesHow is DNA Fingerprinting Used to Crack Criminal Cases?

There are many applications outside of criminal forensics. One is with unidentified human remains. Say we find skeletal remains. Who was it? They might not have a criminal history, but we can use DNA fingerprinting to identify them if we have a sample to compare to.”

Michael Marciano, PhD, Professor of Practice and Director of Forensics Research, Syracuse University

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, was first identified in the late 19th century by Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher, who initially referred to it as “nuclein.” It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that James Watson and Francis Crick unraveled the double helix structure of DNA, with essential contributions from Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray diffraction images. This groundbreaking discovery in 1953 set the stage for the modern field of genetics and opened up a deeper understanding of how genetic information is encoded, replicated, and inherited.

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, emerged in the mid-1980s as a transformative tool in forensic science. The technique was pioneered by Sir Alec Jeffreys, a geneticist at the University of Leicester, who discovered that specific regions of DNA vary greatly among individuals, much like fingerprints. This realization led to the development of DNA fingerprinting, allowing for the identification of individuals based on their unique genetic makeup. DNA fingerprinting revolutionized criminal investigations and legal proceedings, providing a powerful method for solving crimes, establishing paternity, and exonerating the wrongly accused.

DNA fingerprinting works by analyzing specific regions of the genome. Labs will process and extract the DNA and then amplify it to read the patterns. Then, the DNA samples are compared to see if they match. This process works because everyone, except identical twins, has unique DNA.

“We are looking at variations in DNA between individuals. We’re looking at the areas of DNA that are variable between individuals that give us a unique fingerprint or profile that could be used to identify an individual,” explains Dr. Michael Marciano, professor of practice and director of forensics research at Syracuse University.

This field has been around for decades, and while many things have remained the same, there have also been some incredible advancements. “One thing about forensic science is that it is always changing. However, one misconception about forensic science is that we’re not state-of-the-art. The technologies we’re looking at in forensic science have been in the mainstream for decades because we have to show incredibly high reliability and go through the court system. So many of these methods we will use will not be the newest methods because we have tried-and-true methods,” explains Dr. Marciano. “That being said, we never stop innovating in forensics—it just takes a little longer.”

Keep reading to learn more from Dr. Marciano about how DNA fingerprinting works, its applications outside of criminal cases, the challenges of collecting DNA samples, the accuracy of this technology, and how the DNA database works.

Meet the Expert: Michael Marciano, PhD

Dr. Michael Marciano is a professor of practice and director of forensics research at Syracuse University, where he specializes in forensic science, focusing on genetic identity and DNA analysis. He holds a PhD in structural biology, biochemistry, and biophysics from Syracuse University, a master’s of science in forensic molecular biology from the State University of New York at Albany, and a bachelor’s of arts in biology from the University of Rochester.

Dr. Marciano’s research intersects forensic science and national security, utilizing advanced laboratory techniques and machine learning to analyze complex DNA samples. His professional background includes significant contributions to forensic science practice and research, with numerous publications and patents in the field. He is also a committee member for the New York State Commission on Forensic Science and the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) – Human Forensic Biology.

How DNA Fingerprinting Works

DNA fingerprinting analyzes specific genome regions known as short tandem repeats (STRs). These sections of DNA vary among individuals and can be used to identify an individual uniquely.

The first step in DNA fingerprinting involves obtaining a sample of DNA, which can come from sources such as hair, blood, saliva, or skin cells. Once the sample is collected, it is processed and amplified to read the patterns within the STRs. “We release the DNA from the cell, and then we use a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to create millions of copies of the selected DNA regions. This allows us to take a very small amount of DNA and make enough to then be able to detect it with instrumentation,” explains Dr. Marciano.

These amplified DNA fragments are then separated and visualized through a process called capillary electrophoresis. By comparing the pattern of bands formed on the gel to those from known samples, scientists can determine the likelihood of a match between DNA samples, thereby establishing individual identity with a high degree of probability. “The bands of DNA are actually detected peaks, and that is what our DNA profile is. The DNA profile is composed of different DNA locations identified as variable between individuals,” says Marciano. “In mainstream criminal forensics, we don’t look at any disease-causing genes or any regions of the DNA that can tell us what a person looks like.”

Applications Outside of Criminal Prosecution

While DNA fingerprinting is most commonly associated with criminal investigations, the technique has also been utilized in other areas. “There are many applications outside of criminal forensics. One is with unidentified human remains. Say we find skeletal remains. Who was it? They might not have a criminal history, but we can use DNA fingerprinting to identify them if we have a sample to compare to,” says Dr. Marciano. “Then there’s also whole genome sequencing, which is a burgeoning field where we use a huge amount of DNA sequence data to help identify identify relatives, for example. Genetic genealogy relies on many of the techniques we use in forensic science.”

Another area where DNA sequencing is critical is with mass casualties. “The fires in Hawaii, for example, are a great example of noncriminal use of DNA fingerprinting. Same with the World Trade Center. Sure, the attack was a criminal act, but the identification was looking at the victims in this case,” says Dr. Marciano.

Accuracy of DNA Fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting is renowned for its high level of accuracy in identifying individuals. This precision stems from examining specific regions of the DNA that are highly variable among individuals, known as short tandem repeats (STRs). The likelihood of two unrelated individuals having the same DNA profile is astronomically low. “Accuracy can be tricky because it all depends on the amount of data you have and how unique it is. However, it’s safe to say that a single source profile is unique in the human population unless they’re identical twins,” notes Dr. Marciano.

He continues, “We have to be very careful how we say this, though, so what we explain is that we expect you to find a profile once in over a quadrillion individuals. So when we used to use this reporting method, we would say in court that we found a DNA profile at the crime scene, and this DNA profile matches this individual,” he articulates.

Challenges in Collecting and Analyzing Samples for DNA Fingerprinting

Collecting DNA samples presents several challenges that can affect the quality and reliability of the results. “One of the main challenges is not having enough. Forensic samples are not tidy like samples collected and kept in labs. They are in puddles in parking lots, they have gas in them, they’ve been exposed to the elements, et cetera,” says Dr. Marciano. “So getting enough DNA is often very difficult.

Another challenge is that rarely is a sample limited to one person. “A lot of the samples are mixtures of individuals. Picture a crime in a convenience store. Maybe 100 people use that door handle to enter the store, or the money that the person touched and dropped has had 50 people touch it. So a challenge is being able to interpret mixtures of samples, mixtures of individuals, and try to separate them, almost like a puzzle,” he shares.

How The DNA Database is Used (CODIS)

CODIS, or the Combined DNA Index System, is a pivotal tool used in forensic science to match DNA profiles. Developed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), CODIS allows laboratories to exchange and compare DNA profiles electronically, thereby aiding in identifying individuals involved in criminal cases. Comprising numerous local, state, and national databases, CODIS enables storing and comparing DNA profiles obtained from crime scene evidence, convicted offenders, and missing persons. This comprehensive system helps link repeat offenders to unsolved crimes and assists law enforcement agencies in quickly and accurately identifying individuals across multiple jurisdictions.

The databases within CODIS are strictly regulated to ensure the privacy and security of the information contained within them, adhering to stringent legal and ethical standards.

“The DNA database is one of the areas the public has the greatest misconceptions,” says Dr. Marciano. “It comprises samples from convicted offenders, forensic unknowns, and unidentified human remains and missing persons. In many states, you could be required to give a DNA sample if you’re arrested. In some states, it is if you are arrested and convicted of a felony. There are complex flow charts on entering a profile that ensure the information is accurate and secure.”

The information in the database is constantly changing, depending on state, local, and federal laws. “New York State, for example, just decriminalized marijuana. So what happened was anyone in the DNA database for marijuana charges had their DNA expunged,” he explains. “There are very strict guidelines for the data to be added, removed, and managed. I feel much more comfortable about my DNA if it were in the CODIS database than with a private company like 23andMe.”

Kimmy Gustafson

Writer

How to Become a Forensic Counselor

Home Forensic Education Blog How to BecomeHow to Become a Forensic Counselor

Legal and mental health issues are often related, and forensic counselors work precisely where they overlap. Forensic counselors work with the families of people who are incarcerated; they offer substance abuse treatment to people on parole; and they develop strategies for teasing out the root causes of someone’s placement in the criminal justice system. In this way, being a forensic counselor means understanding that people in the criminal justice system don’t just require simple punishment—they need help.

Forensic counselors aren’t just social workers, though. Their expert understanding of psychology as it relates to criminal justice allows them to work on many facets of the legal system. Forensic counselors can provide testimony as expert witnesses, sit in on parole meetings, or process inmate evaluations. A forensic counselor’s decisions can drastically alter the course of someone’s life, which is one reason why rigorous academic and licensure requirements are in place for this profession.

Forensic counselors can specialize in many fields, including substance abuse, group therapy, child psychology, or mental health law. They may work in hospitals, correctional facilities, or domestic violence shelters. In any event, this is emotionally heavy work, and it requires the compassion of a social worker, the objectivity of a legal professional, and the scientific rigor of a psychologist. For better or worse, the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS 2024) shows the career outlook for community and social service occupations is on the rise; predicted to grow faster than the average for all occupations from 2023 to 2033. About 299,400 openings are projected each year, on average, in these occupations.

With the average salary of a forensic counselor coming in at just under $55,000 a year, this isn’t a profession that’s motivated by money. But, interestingly, a PayScale (2024) survey with over 3,500 respondents found the vast majority of forensic counselors to be highly satisfied with their job. Of course, that might have something to do with the fact that their day-to-day lives involve being guardian angels for some of the least fortunate members of society.

But a guardian angel needs more than wings – forensic counselors need a degree, experience, and a license. In addition, forensic counseling has unique pathways that can validate a professional as an expert in their subject and make them eligible to practice.

Read on to get our step-by-step guide to becoming a forensic counselor.

Southern New Hampshire University

MS in Psychology - Forensic Psychology

Walden University

MS - Clinical Mental Health Counseling: Forensic Counseling

MS - Forensic Psychology

PhD - Clinical Psychology

Carlow University

MA Psychology - Forensic Psychology

Step-by-Step Guide to Becoming a Forensic Counselor

Step One: Earn a Bachelor’s Degree (Four Years)

After graduating high school, aspiring forensic counselors must earn a bachelor’s degree. Majors that revolve around psychology are the ideal choice for aspiring forensic counselors and programs that focus on forensic psychology specifically. Admissions requirements vary from school to school but generally include some combination of the following: a competitive high school GPA (3.0 or greater); SAT and ACT scores; letters of recommendation; and a personal essay.

Arizona State University

Arizona State University has an online bachelor of science in psychology with a concentration in forensic psychology. Going deeper than some bachelor of arts degrees in the subject, students take lab courses and advanced statistical training to better understand forensic psychology’s neuroscientific aspects.

The university offers both a BS and BA in psychology with a forensic psychology concentration. The BS program provides more of a foundation in science and math emphasizing neuroscientific and biological understanding. The BA in forensic psychology focuses on concepts related to the justice system and human behavior. It focuses less on science and math, instead offering more electives and course selection.

Courses cover topics such as forensic psychology; psychology and law; correctional psychology; psychological disorders; research methods; and statistical methods. The program consists of 120 credits and can be completed entirely online in four years through 7.5-week courses.

Location: Phoenix, AZ
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

Maryville University

Maryville University offers an online bachelor of arts in forensic psychology that lays the groundwork for graduate-level education. The curriculum covers the intersection of three distinct areas: psychology, criminal justice, and social science. During this program, students will complete a 135-hour internship in their chosen setting, as well as a senior project capstone experience.

Courses include criminal behavior; juvenile delinquency; abnormal psychology; criminal investigations; and police psychology. The program consists of 128 credits and courses are designed to meet American Psychological Association standards.

Graduates can take up roles such as police officers, detectives, criminal investigators, forensic psychologists, correctional officers, victim advocates, community service specialists, and forensic social workers.

Location: St. Louis, MO
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

Southern New Hampshire University

Southern New Hampshire University offers a bachelor of arts in psychology with a forensic psychology concentration. Core courses include abnormal psychology; theories of personality; theories of social psychology; scientific investigations; and psychology and social change.

Students in this program automatically earn a 12-credit data literacy in psychology certificate, which verifies an individual’s ability to assess a crime’s psychological impact on individuals, groups, and society, and bolsters one’s credentials as an expert witness. Students can transfer up to 90 credits of courses from bachelor’s or associate’s degree programs.

The concentration in forensic psychology includes courses such as fundamentals of forensic psychology; criminal minds; seminar in forensic psychology; assessment and testing; and evaluation of special populations.

Location: Manchester, NH
Accreditation: New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Four years

Step Two: Earn a Master’s Degree (One to Three Years)

After earning their bachelor’s degree, aspiring forensic counselors need to earn a master’s degree in forensic psychology or mental health counseling. This isn’t an optional step for those seeking credentials in the field; state licensure (see step four below) requires forensic counselors to have a master’s degree.

Admissions requirements vary from school to school but generally include some combination of the following: a competitive undergraduate GPA (3.0 or greater); GRE scores (waivers available); undergraduate coursework in psychology; letters of recommendation; and a personal statement.

Marymount University

Marymount University offers a master of arts program in forensic and legal psychology preparing students for rewarding and dynamic careers that tackle pressing issues in the legal system and intelligence community. Within this program, students will have the option to add a concentration in intelligence studies. This five-course track provides students with the skills and knowledge to be competitive in the intelligence community and the private sector companies that support it.

This 39-credit program includes courses such as bases of psychopathology; legal and investigative psychology; psychology of criminal behavior; forensic assessment; victims of interpersonal violence; behavioral criminology; and intelligence analysis, among others.

Marymount University also offers an on-campus dual-degree program that awards a master of arts in forensic and legal psychology (MAFLP) and a master of arts in clinical mental health counseling.

Graduates of the programs meet all requirements to sit for state licensure exams. Courses cover topics such as legal and investigative psychology; forensic assessment; substance abuse assessment and intervention; multicultural counseling; and crisis intervention. The program consists of 75 credits.

Location: Arlington, VA
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
Expected Time to Completion: Two to three years

John Jay College of Criminal Justice

The John Jay College of Criminal Justice in Manhattan has an on-campus master of arts in forensic mental health counseling program that prepares graduates for state licensure. In collaboration with the psychology department staff, students learn how to interview, counsel, and assess individuals in the legal system. The program requires clinical fieldwork and offers research opportunities for those students interested in pursuing doctoral education.

The courses cover topics such as psychopathology, an introduction to forensic mental health counseling, counseling and psychotherapy methods, criminal behavior, eyewitness identification, ethical issues in forensic mental health, empirical crime scene analysis, and advanced issues in victim counseling and psychotherapy. The program consists of 60 credits.

Location: New York, NY
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

Purdue Global University

Purdue Global University’s College of Social and Behavioral Sciences offers an online master of science in psychology with a concentration in forensic psychology. The forensic psychology concentration prepares graduates to apply evidence-based psychological theories and concepts to advocate for a diverse range of patients in legal systems. Multiple start dates are available throughout the year for students’ convenience.

The program, which consists of 60 to 75 credits, includes courses such as foundations of professional psychology, applied statistics for psychology, ethics and standards of professional psychology, advanced research methods, foundations of psychopathology, principles of forensic psychology, forensic psychology and the law, and theories of criminal behavior.

Location: West Lafayette, IN
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Expected Time to Completion: Two years

Step Three: Gain Work Experience (Two to Three Years)

After earning their master’s degree, forensic counselors will need to start putting theory into practice by gaining early work experience. Since forensic counseling is tailored to each situation and since the consequences of error can be so high, it’s at this stage that new forensic counselors work in supervised conditions. Only once a certain number of supervised work hours have been completed can forensic counselors begin to pursue state licensure (see step four below), which will allow them to practice as fully licensed professionals.

Step Four: Get Licensed (Timeline Varies)

After gaining early work experience, forensic counselors must be licensed by the state they wish to practice in. Licenses will vary in requirements, terminology, and structure from state to state. However, common eligibility requirements include a master’s degree and 2,000 to 40,000 hours of supervised and unsupervised work experience (BLS 2024).

All states require forensic counselors to pass examinations before becoming licensed. The National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) administers the licensure examinations used in all 50 states and maintains a directory of state licensure information for those who wish to clarify their status.

Step Five: Consider Professional Certification (Optional, Timeline Varies)

While it’s not a requirement to practice, many forensic counselors pursue professional certification to demonstrate their commitment to the profession. Many such certification options exist, each with its own requirements and specialties. However common requirements like work experience, graduate-level education, rigorous examinations, and ongoing professional development ensure that professionally certified forensic counselors go above and beyond their non-certified peers.

Here are three organizations offering professional certification for forensic counselors.

The National Board of Forensic Evaluators (NBFE) allows state-licensed counselors to prove their expertise in forensic health evaluation through its Certified Forensic Mental Health Evaluator (CFMHE) designation. Eligibility requirements include a state license to diagnose and treat mental health disorders independently; one year of post-licensure experience; and 40 hours of substantiated forensic documentation.

In addition, applicants must pass a written exam, submit a sample forensic evaluation, and then defend their evaluation in an oral exam. Exam fees vary. CFMHEs must renew their certification annually with a fee of $80 and proof of three hours of continuing education.

The National Association of Forensic Counselors (NAFC) has multiple optional certification methods for state-licensed professionals who become clinical-level members of the NAFC. Specialized tracks are available in mental health, criminal justice, law, corrections, and addictions. The addiction specialties certification requires applicants to have a valid state license; a master’s degree in a relevant subject; three years (or 6,000 hours) of supervised professional experience in addiction specialties; and 270 hours of formal training in addiction specialties.

Once deemed eligible, applicants have six months to take and pass a multiple-choice exam covering common-core knowledge in addiction specialties. Exam fees are $375. NAFC members can renew their membership by paying an annual fee of $125.

The National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) offers optional board certification as a National Certified Counselor (NCC) through its flagship program. To be eligible, applicants must be able to present: a master’s degree in an area relevant to counseling; 100 hours of postgraduate counseling supervision over the last two years; endorsement from a similarly qualified mental health professional; and 3,000 hours of postgraduate counseling work in the previous two years. Note that students may waive some of these requirements for fully state-licensed professionals.

Once deemed eligible, applicants must pass either the National Counselor Examination for Licensure and Certification (NCE) or the National Clinical Mental Health Counseling Examinations (NCMHCE)—exams also used by states to determine licensure.

Once earned, professionals must recertify the NCC designation every five years through continuing education and annual fees. Those who have earned the NCC designation may pursue further specialized board certifications through the NBCC as a Master Addictions Counselor (MAC) or a Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselor (CCMHC).

Helpful Resources for Forensic Counselors

Forensic counseling has many different sub-disciplines, each with its own vast body of knowledge and best practices. But, as any good forensic counselor will tell you, a holistic view of each individual case is critical in ensuring the best possible outcome. If you’d like to get a view of what professionals in forensic counseling are talking about, check out some of the resources below.

National Association of Forensic Counselors (NAFC)
National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC)
National Board of Forensic Evaluators (NBFE)

Matt Zbrog

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How to Become a Forensic Accountant

Home Forensic Education Blog How to BecomeHow to Become a Forensic Accountant

Some of the world’s most notorious criminals have been brought to justice with the hard work of forensic accountants, including Al Capone and his conviction for tax evasion. White-collar crime remains insidious and rampant although homicide, theft, and drug trafficking headlines dominate news headlines. Even before the Great Recession—the era of subprime mortgages, inflated corporate bonuses, and economic nepotism—forensic accounting had entered the scene to combat the WorldCom and Enron scandals.

So how widespread are these accounting-based malfeasances? In its most recent “Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse,” the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) found that typical organizations lose 5 percent of their annual revenue to misconduct. The ACFE reports three main types of fraud: asset misappropriations (the most common), corruption, and financial statement fraud (i.e., “cooking the books”), and many cases combine two of the categories.

Among the industries surveyed, ACFE found the highest proportion of misbehavior among three sectors: banking & financial services, manufacturing, and government & public administration. Not surprisingly, average losses increased due to the perpetrator’s level of power or authority in an organization.

To expose financial abuses, forensic accountants perform several functions. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), forensic accountants analyze financial records to create profiles and detailed reports; ensure compliance with government and accounting regulations (e.g., GAAP); trace income sources and transaction histories; work with case agents in structured interviews of suspects; prepare search warrants or affidavits to more thoroughly investigate cases; and testify as expert witnesses in court cases.

Forensic accountants typically begin as certified public accountants (CPAs) and employ similar detecting skills to “follow the money” and build criminal cases when financial statements or records are amiss. In addition to corporate investigations, they are deployed in many cases, including insurance fraud, business valuation, embezzlement, divorce, antitrust suits, credit card fraud, bankruptcy, personal injury claims, money laundering, damage assessments, contract disputes, and even tracking terrorism. They work full-time for government agencies, insurance companies, banks, and police departments or are hired as contractors to investigate when suspicions of misconduct arise.

Read on to discover how much money these forensics professionals typically make and the steps to joining this career in white-collar crime-fighting.

Purdue Global

BSA - Auditing & Forensic Accountancy

Southern New Hampshire University

BS in Accounting - Forensic Accounting & Fraud Examination

Stevenson University Online

Forensic Accounting Grad Certificate

Online Master's in Forensic Accounting

UNC Pembroke

MBA - Forensic Accounting

Murray State University

MBA - Forensic Accounting

Forensic Accountant Career Outlook

The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS 2025) reports that accounting is a profession on the rise. From 2024 to 2034, there is a projected 5 percent increase in openings for accountants and auditors.

Forensic Accountant Salary

In May 2024, the BLS showed the median annual salary for accountants and auditors is $81,680. The lowest 10th percentile earned $52,780 compared to the top 10th percentile earned more than $141,420. These were the latest figures available as of October 2025.

While the BLS does not differentiate the salaries of accountants and forensic accountants, data from Payscale.com (2025) shows that forensic accountants earn average annual salaries of $82,375 based on three self-reported salaries.

In the survey, “Compensation Guide for Anti-Fraud Professionals,” the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (CFEs) found that forensic accountants are the highest-paid accounting professionals. Highlights from the report include:

CFEs earn 32 percent more than non-certified counterparts
CFEs can earn a promotion, pay raise, or a one-time bonus after earning their CFE credential

The biannual survey illustrates that having professional certifications can enhance a person’s earning potential. Read on to learn more about certifications in the section below.

Forensic Accountant Certification

Forensic accountants typically have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a related field, according to the ACFE. For the forensic specialty, many will also choose to pursue a more advanced degree or certificate program to gain more specialized knowledge.

Practicing accountants in any specialty must have the Certified Public Accountant (CPA) credential. Although the specific requirements for this test vary by state, most states require 150 hours of experience before one can sit for the CPA exam. The additional required hours can be earned either in a master’s degree program or a post-baccalaureate internship.

Forensic accountants may also choose to pursue a professional credential such as the Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) credential to further their career prospects. Details about forensic accounting certifications are available in the step-by-step section below.

Step-by-Step Guide to Become a Forensic Accountant

There are varied paths to becoming a forensic accountant. Still, the vast majority have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting, finance, economics, business, or a related field.

Here is one possible path to becoming a forensic accountant.

Step 1: Graduate from high school (four years)

Aspiring forensic accountants are encouraged to excel in math, computer science, statistics, and psychology classes. At this stage, some students may choose to intern or volunteer in forensics, accounting, computers, banking, or other relevant fields to enhance their university applications, garner letters of recommendation, and learn job-ready skills which can benefit them further down the road.

Step 2: Attend a bachelor’s program in forensic accounting or a related field (four years)

As stated above, forensic accountants typically have at least a bachelor’s degree. Application requirements for four-year colleges typically include sending official transcripts; having a competitive GPA (e.g., >3.0); completing specific courses (e.g., statistics, calculus, computer science); writing a personal statement; submitting official test scores (e.g., SAT, ACT, or TOEFL for non-native speakers of English); and paying an application fee.

Coursework varies by program emphasis but generally involves instruction in the principles of accounting, fraud auditing, asset misappropriation scams, rules of compliance, quantitative methods & analysis, and general education requirements, among others.

Some schools, such as John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City, provide fraud examinations as a major or minor to qualified undergraduate students. These students receive training in fraud examination, forensic accounting, and white-collar crime. As part of their 18-credit minor, these students cover the material necessary to take the certified fraud examiner (CFE) exam.

Location: New York, NY
Duration: One year
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MECHE)

While there are some bachelor’s programs in forensic accounting, pursuing a degree in a related discipline such as accounting, business, or finance may be advisable.

For example, the University of Pennsylvania (UPenn) provides a top-notch undergraduate program in accounting through its famous Wharton School of Business. UPenn’s bachelor’s degree in accounting is competitive and prestigious and offers advanced instruction in financial accounting, tax planning and administration, and corporate valuation.

Location: Philadelphia, PA
Duration: Four years
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MECHE)

In addition to on-campus programs, there are online forensic accounting programs available such as the one at Franklin University. This online 124-credit program offers six and 12-week courses in financial accounting, auditing, principles of finance, and fraud examination. To graduate, students must complete a capstone requirement to evaluate, analyze, and problem-solve a real-world problem in the discipline of forensic accounting.

Location: Columbus, OH
Duration: Four years
Accreditation: International Accreditation Council for Business Education (IACBE)

For more program options, please visit our forensic accounting education page, for a wealth of on-campus, online, and hybrid options.

Step 3: Take the uniform certified public accountant (CPA) examination (timeline varies)

The National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA) offers the uniform CPA examination to aspiring (forensic) accountants. The exam comprises four sections on the fundamentals: auditing and attestation, business environment and concepts, financial accounting and reporting, and regulations. Students must pass this exam with at least a 75 out of 99.

Step 4: Gain professional experience (one to three years)

Before seeking the state-based CPA license and other professional certifications, prospective forensic accountants typically need hands-on experience to complement the didactic instruction of their university education.

Step 5: Seek state CPA licensure and other professional certifications (timeline varies)

First, requirements to get one’s state CPA license vary by state or jurisdiction. For example, in addition to 150 semester hours of qualifying accounting and business courses at the university level, the California Board of Accountancy requires 12 months of experience working in accounting and 500 hours of verifiable work.

The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) provides a convenient table of state requirements for becoming a licensed CPA.

Second, although there is a wide range of additional certifications relevant to forensic accounting, some are more reputable than others.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), for instance, only accepts the following credentials among its applicants in forensic accounting: certified public accounting (CPA), certified financial forensics (CFF-AICPA), certified fraud examiner (CFE), and certified internal auditor (CIA).

The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) provides the Certified in Financial Forensics (CFF) credential. Established in 2008, the exam for this certification is open to qualified CPAs with at least 1,000 hours of experience in forensic accounting over the previous five years and 75 hours of continuing professional education (CPE) in the relevant subject matter.

The Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) offers the Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) credentialing exam to bachelor’s-prepared ASFE members with at least two years of professional experience in internal auditing, criminology, fraud investigation, or loss prevention. The exam costs a fee and tests subjects’ knowledge in four areas: fraud prevention and deterrence, financial transactions and fraud schemes, investigation, and law.

Finally, the Institute of Internal Auditors (IAI) provides the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) certification and four specialty certifications: control self-assessment, government auditing, financial services auditing, and risk management assurance.

Step 6: Pursue a graduate degree in forensic accounting (typically two years)

Once forensic accountants have established themselves professionally, they may choose to enroll in a graduate degree or certificate program. Admissions committees usually call for official transcripts from postsecondary schools with relevant coursework (e.g., accounting, economics, finance, auditing, etc.); a competitive GPA; personal statement; interview (video or in-person); letter(s) of recommendation; and test scores (GRE, GMAT, or TOEFL for non-native speakers of English).

For example, West Virginia University offers a hybrid (i.e., online and on-campus mix) master’s of science program in forensic and fraud examination (MSFFE). The 30-credit MSFFE—ideal for working professionals—can be completed in as few as 12 months and features interdisciplinary coursework in criminology, professional ethics, data analysis methodologies, MBA courses, and more.

Location: Morgantown, WV
Duration: Two years
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC)

For more information on graduate programs, please visit the forensic accounting programs page for on-campus, online, and hybrid options.

Forensic Accounting Program Accreditation

Finally, students are advised to seek out accredited programs—those which have met or exceeded quality standards related to faculty, facilities, student support services, and more—and several institutions provide accreditation. Accreditation is offered at the institutional and programmatic levels.

Institutional Accreditation

The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is affiliated with the U.S. Department of Education, which oversees institutional accreditation. There are six regional accrediting bodies:

Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities (NWCCU)
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC)

Programmatic Accreditation

The primary programmatic accreditation body for accounting and business is the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), which accredits 900 business schools in the US and globally.

A second business program accrediting body is the International Accreditation Council for Business Education (IACBE) which accredits over 2,000 business and accounting programs worldwide.

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What Qualifications Does a Bloodstain Pattern Analyst Possess?

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesWhat Qualifications Does a Bloodstain Pattern Analyst Possess?

The analyst must remember to stay grounded in the science. Having a more universal standard in training and experience would assist in having more qualified analysts, who I believe can better apply this idea towards their analysis.”

Scott Swick, President of the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA)

Bloodstain pattern analysts examine bloodstains at crime scenes in order to determine the events that caused the bloodshed. By analyzing the patterns, shapes, and distribution of bloodstains, they might be able to deduce the type of weapon used, the sequence of actions which took place, and/or the positions or movements of the victim, perpetrator, and any other people involved. This analysis helps in understanding the dynamics of the crime and can provide critical evidence in investigations and court proceedings.

Like many forensic disciplines, bloodstain pattern analysis is both an art and a science. The scientific aspect involves applying principles of physics, biology, and mathematics to understand how blood behaves when subjected to external forces. But the art is in the interpretation of the patterns the analyst sees; experience, intuition, and contextual understanding all help piece together the story behind the bloodstains.

Bloodstain pattern analysis requires a mix of objective analysis and subjective judgment. Experience and training are crucial. To learn more about bloodstain pattern analysts and what qualifications they have, read on.

Meet the Expert: Scott Swick

Scott Swick is the president of the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) and a Texas Ranger with the Texas Department of Public Safety. He is currently assigned to Company “C” in Amarillo, Texas and fully involved in major criminal investigations and crime scene investigation, to include bloodstain pattern analysis, shooting incident reconstruction, crime scene reconstruction, and forensic mapping. He has a Master Peace Officer License with over 19 years of law enforcement experience and a Certified Bloodstain Pattern Analyst through the IAI.

Swick is a certified instructor and currently instructs in the Texas Ranger Division Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course. He is a member of the Texas Rangers Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Working Group, the Texas Rangers Officer Involved Shooting Working Group, The Texas Rangers State Major Crime Scene Team, and serves as the Team Leader for the Texas Rangers Company “C” Crime Scene Team. He is also a 2018 graduate of the University of Tennessee National Forensics Academy and is a Certified Crime Scene Analyst through the International Association of Identification.

Swick has previously served as IABPA Vice President, Region 3 (Central). In addition to the IABPA, Scott is a member of the International Association of Identification and the Association for Crime Scene Reconstruction. He is also owner and principal consultant of Vector Forensics.

The Evolution of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

“Bloodstain pattern analysis, whose origins are over 150 years old, has changed immensely over the last 10 years,” Swick says.

The discipline can be traced back to 1895, with Dr. Eduoard Piotrowski’s studies in Austria about the way blood spatter resulted from head wounds. In the 1950s, Dr. Paul Kirk brought bloodstain pattern analysis to greater prominence, and his analysis of bloodstains in the Sam Sheppard murder case demonstrated the discipline’s application in criminal investigations. The establishment as a forensic discipline came in the 1970s and 1980s, with the creation of training standards and professional organizations like the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA).

The current era of bloodstain pattern analysis, which dates from roughly the 1990s to today, is characterized by the introduction of advanced technologies like digital imaging and 3D modeling and more rigorous standards of certification, training, and analysis. Terrestrial scanning and other cutting-edge technologies promise to further push the boundaries of what’s possible.

“These new technologies have allowed the bloodstain pattern analyst to develop more precise calculations and, therefore, a more accurate analysis,” Swick says.

Qualifications for Bloodstain Pattern Analysts

Different jurisdictions will have different sets of standards for what makes a qualified bloodstain pattern analyst. But the fact that there are standards is important. The work of bloodstain pattern analysts can make or break a case, and an analyst may need to testify at trial as to how they came to their conclusions.

For Swick, a quality-trained analyst should have successfully attended more than one 40-hour basic bloodstain pattern analysis training course, more than one 40-hour advanced bloodstain pattern analysis training course, a fluid dynamics course with bloodstain pattern analysis principles, a math and physics in bloodstain pattern analysis training course, a bloodstain pattern analysis on fabrics training course, and some type of crime scene reconstruction training courses.

“These courses would be a solid foundation to begin a mentorship program under a qualified bloodstain pattern analyst, where one could hone their skills more and ultimately complete a certification process,” Swick says. “That, coupled with real case experience, would then allow a bloodstain pattern analyst to possibly be considered someone capable of rendering an opinion in a courtroom setting.”

One such certification process is offered through the International Association for Identification (IAI), which requires passing a proctored written test, a bloodstain pattern identification test, bloodstain pattern analysis scenario questions based on prior real bloodstain investigations, and an area of convergence and area of origin calculation test on a known bloodstain impact pattern. Those who complete the certification process will hold the title of IAI certified bloodstain pattern analyst for a 5-year period, after which they would need to complete a recertification process. True expertise is a direction, not a destination.

“The term ‘expert’ is overused in the forensic world,” Swick says. “I don’t consider myself an expert. While I have had many hours of bloodstain pattern analysis training, along with real case experience, I am continuously learning new things and must be open to changes in the discipline.”

Top Challenges in Bloodstain Analysis

Swick points out that while bloodstain pattern analysis is rooted in deeply proven scientific disciplines, there are subjective elements to what is reviewed, analyzed, and ultimately reported. That’s no different than any other forensic discipline where scientific principles are paired with a human factor and perspective, but it remains an important point. Bias, whether known or unknown to the analyst, can play a role in their final product.

“In my opinion, the primary challenge facing a bloodstain pattern analyst today is being able to view all pieces of evidence in an unbiased and neutral way, so as to complete the most accurate analysis, which in turn will allow for the best end result, regardless of public opinion,” Swick says. “An analyst’s job is always to report what the evidence shows, and this can sometimes be a tough job when you are dealing with possible subjective items or reviews.”

Advanced technology has been a huge benefit to bloodstain pattern analysts, but it can sometimes give a false sense of security. Over-reliance on technological tools can lead to an underestimation of contextual factors, and the danger of feeding one’s own confirmation biases.

“The analyst must remember to stay grounded in the science,” Swick says. “Having a more universal standard in training and experience would assist in having more qualified analysts, who I believe can better apply this idea towards their analysis.”

The Future of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

Advancements in AI have shown promise in bloodstain pattern analysis. AI algorithms, particularly machine learning models, tend to perform well in recognizing and classifying patterns of all types. Applied to bloodstain pattern analysis, AI may be able to quickly identify patterns like spatter, cast-off, and transfer stains. They may also be able to aid in crime scene reconstruction, simulation, and automated reporting. But it’s still early days.

“AI is a very intriguing area of study right now in bloodstain pattern analysis,” Swick says. “But I believe there are more studies needed before it can become truly beneficial.”

Bloodstain pattern analysis will continue to be shaped by new technological advancements, which will in turn aid analysts in coming to more accurate and informative results. More standardized methodologies related to training and certification will further strengthen its credibility in the legal systems. The discipline will, in turn, become more integral in solving crimes, and cement itself as a pillar of modern investigative work.

“The future of bloodstain pattern analysis is a bright one,” Swick says.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Textile Forensics: How Small Clues Can Crack a Case

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesTextile Forensics: How Small Clues Can Crack a Case

For how small they are, fibers are really complicated things.”

Max M. Houck, PhD, Former Chair of the Forensic Science Educational Program Accreditation Commission

Forensic scientists are a bold breed. Who else could, when asked to determine the makeup and origins of a single stray thread, accept the task with zeal? Welcome to the world of textile forensics, which analyzes fibers and fabrics found at crime scenes. Identifying those fibers and fabrics, and tracing them back to their origins, can, in turn, link them with suspects, victims, and locations. Entire investigations might hinge upon analyzing a sample thinner than a strand of human hair.

Fibers and fabrics are everywhere, but each individual piece has its own unique journey. The complexities of international commerce mean that fiber and fabric work their way through byzantine supply chains before ending up at crime scenes. Samples from recycled or repurposed items could be on their second or third life. Forensic scientists who specialize in textile materials need to be as attuned to these complexities as they are to the science of laboratory analysis.

Read on to learn more about textile forensics and how it’s used to serve justice.

Meet the Expert: Max Houck, PhD

An award-winning international expert in the forensic sciences, Dr. Max M. Houck has nearly 30 years of expertise in casework, research, management, and writing. His casework includes the Branch Davidian Investigation, the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon, the D.B. Cooper case, and the West Memphis Three, among others. He has managed tens of millions of dollars in grants and his committee work includes the White House, the National Academies of Science, the Royal Society, and Interpol.

Dr. Houck is one of the most published professionals in his field, with over 20 books and dozens of peer-reviewed articles. His research has ranged from microscopic trace evidence to how forensic service providers operate as systems.

In addition to chairing the Forensic Science Educational Program Accreditation Commission for six years, Dr. Houck has helped or started forensic academic programs at West Virginia University, the University of Southern Florida, and Florida International University. His Substack, Forensic Science*, explores forensic science and the role it plays in criminal justice.

How Forensic Scientists Work with Textiles

“The first thing you do is you just look at it,” Dr. Houck says. “Usually, that’s done by using a transmitted-light microscope. You mount your sample on a slide, and you look at its physical characteristics. What’s the color? What’s its cross-sectional shape? There are probably 400 to 500 different cross-sectional shapes that are in use at any one time.”

Textile materials are different from latent prints and DNA in that there’s no database to compare samples to on a one-to-one basis. Instead, forensic scientists working with textile material will mark down the shape they see. Typical shapes can include trilobe, three-fin, octagonal, dog-bone, and many others. After noting the shape, scientists will look at the sample under different varieties of light, the first being polarized light. That allows them to determine the optical characteristics of the fiber, which aids identification.

“Think of it like the difference between oak and birch and pine,” Dr. Houck says. “You’re looking at how these things are organized internally.”

Optical properties help discern a sample from other polymer types. For example, even if you have two nylon fibers, and even if they have the same cross-section, their optical properties might be different if they were made differently. When polymers are made—in a process called ‘spinning dope’—it’s like honey getting pulled through a showerhead. And the holes in that showerhead (which is actually a spinneret) determine what the final cross-sectional shape of the fibers are. But once they come out, they get gathered up and pulled at a certain rate, which gives them a particular density. So fiber density can vary from batch to batch.

“You could have two fibers with the same diameter and the same cross-sectional shape,” Dr. Houck says. “But if they were pulled at different rates, then those internal optical properties would allow you to know that, and know that they came from two different batches.”

Instrumentation in Textile Forensics

After identifying the sample and noting its optical properties, the next step is verifying the sample’s polymer type. This is done via instrumentation, typically with an infrared spectrometer, the most common type of which is called a Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectrometer. This instrument hits the fiber sample with the beam of infrared light and it makes the fiber vibrate; the type and orientation of each of the chemical bonds in that fiber will vibrate differently as a result. Based on those vibrations, the instrument can determine the type of polymer in the sample.

“When I’m testifying, there’s a metaphor I use for this,” Dr. Houck says. “If I took a basketball and I threw it into an orchestra pit, I could tell you if there was a harp or a banjo or a ukulele or violin down there based on the vibration of the strings. This is the same idea: you’re making the molecules vibrate, and your instrument is listening.”

Once a forensic scientist has verified their polymer in this way, they’ll still need to verify its subtype (there’s more than one type of nylon, for example). Then they’ll verify its color, which is done with a microspectrophotometer. The microspectrophotometer shoots a beam of UV visible light across the spectrum into the fiber and determines its color. Because dye uptake into fiber is not always uniform, the forensic scientist will usually take multiple shots along the fiber to account for any variation, then plot the results on a graph to see if the colors line up.

Going beyond color, there are additional tests that can be performed, such as dye analysis. However, those are rare, as they are very hands-on, time-consuming, and resource-intensive.

“For how small they are, fibers are really complicated things,” Dr. Houck says.

Moving Between Analysis and Investigation in Textile Forensics

Okay, so now what? Knowing the color, shape, and polymer of a piece of textile material isn’t, in itself, enough to tell you where it came from. In fact, those characteristics, without corroborating context, can be misleading. This is where the other side of textile forensics comes into play: investigating the origins of a sample based on what’s been learned in the lab.

“It comes down to an individual analysts looking at the evidence and going, ‘Is there something else here?’” Dr. Houck says.

Whether a forensic scientist gets involved in this sleuthing aspect of the case depends on a few different factors. How big of a case is it? How specific is the evidence? And how crucial of a component is the origin of this sample? And not every analyst knows how to connect a piece of textile evidence with the industry that created it.

“The connection with industry is something we’re losing in forensic science,” Dr. Houck says. “People don’t appreciate the complexity of the supply chain. They don’t know where to start.”

Tracing a sample’s movement from origin to crime scene is no simple task. The knowledge of where a particular fiber came from may rest with a single employee of a rope and cordage institute in New Hampshire, for example, or on a paper printout in the back of a dusty file cabinet at some obscure manufacturing association. Not everyone has the wherewithal, let alone the bandwidth, to do that level of investigation today.

“The number of units in laboratories that do fiber exams is probably decreasing,” Dr. Houck says. “It’s harder to teach academically because it’s so involved. And with the pressures of casework, I think it’s becoming more and more rare to really do the sleuthing part.”

The Impact of Supply Chains on Textile Forensics

The intricacies of modern, international supply chains mean that a textile sample often has taken a long and circuitous path before arriving at a crime scene. As Dr. Houck writes in his blog, Forensic Science*, recycled items can give textile materials a second or even third life. The fibers in the center of a thick rope might be repurposed from carpet. A shirt might be unwoven and rewoven in a factory in Pakistan. Even the labeling on a specific item isn’t necessarily definitive, given the cut corners of global commerce. Investigators need to be aware of these variables, or else they might arrive at an incorrect conclusion.

“There are companies that used to take old blue jeans and shred them up and use them as insulation and in buildings,” Dr. Houck says. “Well, in a shooting reconstruction, if a bullet goes through an insulated wall, you might have fibers introduced that weren’t actually in the room environment. You really need to be aware of this sort of thing.”

Case Example: The Golden (Brown-Green) Thread

Dr. Houck relates a story about a case he was assigned while at the Bureau, where a woman had been found deceased on the side of a road. The only physical evidence collected was a small fiber found during the autopsy. The fiber, about the width of a pinky nail, was the only clue available.

The fiber measured 45 microns in diameter, which is relatively large and suggested it was likely from a carpet. Dr. Houck identified the fiber as rayon, a material made from regenerated wood pulp and cotton waste. But rayon was not typically used in carpets due to its lack of durability. The unusual color of the fiber, described as an unattractive brownish-green, was another key detail.

“You wouldn’t want to own anything this color unless you were in the Army,” Dr. Houck laughs.

After extensive research and phone calls, Dr. Houck learned that a particular model of General Motors cars from the late 1970s used a mix of nylon and rayon in their carpeting—and in this color. Further investigation revealed that only eight cars of that specific make and model from the relevant time period were registered in the five-state area surrounding the discovery site. A subsequent query to the local investigator revealed that one of the suspects owned an older car matching the description, including the unusual carpet color. This crucial evidence eventually led to a suspect’s confession.

Notably, the magic of this case was not found in high-powered technology or rigorous science, though both did play a part. Instead, what cracked it open was two weeks of phone calls, asking questions, getting passed on from person to person, navigating dead ends—people who’d retired, records that’d been lost, documents that’d gone missing—and, most importantly, not giving up.

“It took a lot of patience,” Dr. Houck says. “There were a lot of dead ends. I needed a combination of knowledge and luck. But justice was served.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

What is CODIS? A Forensics Professional’s Guide

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesWhat is CODIS? A Forensics Professional’s Guide

The biggest misconception is that people think CODIS itself will solve crimes. But it doesn’t solve crimes. It just links information.”

Monica Rockswold, International Forensic Biology Trainer, Global Forensic and Justice Center (GFJC), Florida International University (FIU)

The Combined DNA Index System, commonly known as CODIS, is a tool used by law enforcement agencies to aid in solving crimes. Developed and maintained by the FBI, it is one of the largest DNA databases in the world, containing over 14 million offender profiles and over four million arrestee profiles, along with profiles from crime scenes, missing persons, and unidentified human remains.

CODIS went live in 1994, bringing together fragmented state and local DNA data into one master database. It began with DNA profiles from convicted offenders and forensic samples but has widened over time, particularly as state and federal laws have expanded the scope of DNA sample collection to include arrestees.

Advances in DNA analysis techniques have further improved the system’s effectiveness. But while today’s version of CODIS is an extremely powerful tool in forensics and law enforcement, it’s not a catchall solution.

To learn more, read on.

Meet the Expert: Monica Rockswold

Monica Rockswold is an international forensic biology trainer at the Global Forensic and Justice Center (GFJC) at Florida International University (FIU). She earned her bachelor of science in forensic science from the University of Central Florida. Rockswold has over 17 years of experience in forensics, with 14 years of those years spent in an accredited crime laboratory working in the disciplines of seized drugs, gunshot residue, firearms, and biology. She has, to date, trained individuals from five countries, nine crime laboratories, and two universities.

Biggest Misconceptions Around CODIS

“The biggest misconception is that people think CODIS itself will solve crimes,” Rockswold says. “But it doesn’t solve crimes. It just links information.”

CODIS’s primary function is to facilitate connections between DNA evidence collected from different crime scenes, suspects, and victims. It can link cases with people, cases with cases, and even help identify missing persons. But it’s a very controlled database, and the only profiles that get added are ones that link, with certainty, to a particular case. Submissions to CODIS need to be approved by an administrator.

To be clear: forensics professionals aren’t searching for someone up in CODIS the way the average person searches something up on the internet. The data in CODIS is de-identified, such that all the searcher can see is the DNA sample—the alleles themselves—and whether there are potential matches in the system. This prevents instances of bias from creeping in.

How Forensics Professionals Work with CODIS

Not every lab has access to CODIS. But if it does, forensics professionals will receive some specialized training in it before receiving their personal identification information, which allows them to log in securely to CODIS.

When adding information to CODIS, a forensics professional will add a unique ID for the case. There is a specific protocol for identifying information, and it’s based on where the lab is located, what the case number is, and what type of profile is being entered. The forensics professional will take their allele calls—the numbers they receive on an electropherogram—and add the DNA profile into CODIS. Once they’ve submitted those numbers, they will be asked, on a fresh screen, to enter them a second time as a failsafe to ensure the information has been entered correctly.

After submitting the DNA profile, a forensics professional will get back information about any potential matches to other profiles in the wider CODIS database. Then, as a trained analyst, it’s their job to go through and assess those potential matches to determine whether they are, indeed, matches. If they are, a CODIS administrator may be able to supply further information. Afterward, the forensics professional can write a report detailing their findings.

Strengths and Weaknesses of CODIS

CODIS has been around for decades now. It has enormous amounts of information for forensics professionals to draw upon. Files don’t get lost the way they might’ve in the paper era. And CODIS’s memory doesn’t fog the way a detective’s might. This tool gets stronger with age: not only working in the present moment but also helping catch serious offenders from other offenses and solving cold cases.

“The more information CODIS has, the better chance there is of linking information through it,” Rockswold says.

It’s not without its weaknesses. There’s a lot of data for CODIS to store, and an intricate web of oversight and security is required to maintain individuals’ privacy. Updates to kit chemistry, the number of areas tested, and forensics processes mean samples processed at present provide more information than ones processed years ago.

“Newer kits gather more information,” Rockswold says. “Before, we were looking at 13 areas, and now we’re looking at 20, at least. You can get more potential hits, but you also have to do more investigation to see whether that’s a true hit or not.”

Even when there’s a potential match in CODIS, there’s a prudent culture of caution and redundancy. For example, forensics professionals will ask for a fresh buccal swab to verify that the profile in CODIS matches the person it’s attached to. This highlights a recurring theme: CODIS as an investigative support tool, rather than the arbiter of truth and justice.

“We’re never going to solve a crime just because CODIS says we have a potential hit,” Rockswold says. “It’s a tool to create more possible leads, to narrow things down. And as an analyst, you will always go back and work your findings again.”

Today, CODIS is used in so many cases that it would be impossible for most forensics professionals to recount them all. But while Rockswold has seen many CODIS hits in her career, one stands out above the others.

“I had two individuals, where I knew who they were, and I got their profiles and added them to CODIS,” Rockswold says. “I got a stack of hits. My report from CODIS is usually about a page and a half long—this one was six pages long, and they were all real hits.”

It turned out that those two individuals had been involved in a string of as-yet-unsolved crimes, and Rockswold’s analysis was the first time that either of them had been successfully identified. Rockswold’s entry of their information into CODIS provided the critical missing link, bringing several cases to justice, and potentially preventing future crimes.

The Future of CODIS

The CODIS system will continue to expand in the future. However, while the FBI has begun combining other forms of biometric data—iris scans, facial features, fingerprints, and palm prints, for example—it’s unlikely to combine any of those with CODIS. The CODIS database is designed to be as unbiased as possible; extraneous identifying information could hamper that.

“I don’t think there’s any push to integrate CODIS with actual identity markers such as irises and fingerprints,” Rockswold says.

Advances in DNA testing are promising to make CODIS more effective for forensics professionals and law enforcement. Some law enforcement agencies are already working with rapid DNA technology, where they can take a cheek swab from an arrestee, run it through a specialized instrument, and get a DNA profile back within an hour and a half.

“It’s a very quick system compared to traditional DNA analysis,” Rockswold says.

Police departments don’t have the personnel to work with incomplete profiles, but if they’re able to get a complete profile from the swab, they can automatically upload it to CODIS and do some preliminary searches—for example, for violent offenses—and see if there are any preliminary hits. That can help inform whether someone should be released or detained longer.

“Within 24 hours, it will search the state level of the database, and they’ll know what to do with that individual,” Rockswold says. “That can help keep really dangerous people off the streets and shorten the time for catching criminals.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

The Frontier of Biometric Screening: Facial Identification

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsThe Frontier of Biometric Screening: Facial Identification

Facial recognition technology and systems have changed exponentially in the last decade. With AI and deep neural networks, it’s incredible how fast and accurate they are. But they’re still just a tool to help humans. And that’s where we come in.”

Lora Sims is Director of Face Center of Excellence (FaCE) and Biometrics SME at Ideal Innovations, Inc.

Facial identification is one of the newer, sharper arrows in the forensic scientist’s quiver. Like fingerprint and DNA analysis, it draws from unique biological markers to identify suspects, victims, and persons of interest. In an increasingly recorded world, the applications of facial identification are vast, and AI and machine learning innovations are making the process quicker and more exact.

It can be a bedeviling subject to the untrained eye. A combination of factors contributes to making one face look like another or not. And for all the assistance AI and machine learning provide, they still need a trained human examiner to make the final call.

Facial identification is a relatively young forensics discipline that’s still changing as the associated technology, standards, and research evolve. Read on to learn more about facial identification, the challenges it must overcome, and where it’s headed in the future.

Meet the Expert: Lora Sims

Lora Sims is director of the Face Center of Excellence (FaCE) and Biometrics SME at Ideal Innovations, Inc. (I-3), a company specializing in biometrics, forensics, and technical services. Starting with a background in tenprint, Sims has become a pioneer in developing and deploying internationally recognized facial identification training.

Currently chair of the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science Digital Multimedia Scientific Area Committee (DM SAC), Sims also serves as a member of the International Association for Identification’s (IAI) Science & Practices subcommittee for Facial Identification, a member and former chair of the Facial Identification Scientific Working Group (FISWG), and former chair of the OSAC Facial Identification subcommittee.

How Forensics Professionals Use Facial Identification

“The big challenge with faces is that they’re not static,” Sims says. “With fingerprints, the patterns are formed in utero and persist until after decomposition. Barring any scarring or disease, they’re permanent and unique. But faces are different: they change constantly.”

Faces change over time and under different conditions. How one ages, gains and loses weight, or affects different expressions will impact their face’s appearance. Different lighting, different poses, and even different clothes and accessories can complicate comparison further. We think we know a face—until we don’t.

“I started my career in fingerprints,” Sims says. “But I love the challenge of facial identification. It’s never cut and dry.”

Iris analysis is more static. But it’s also less widely applicable: an iris needs to be captured up close, similar to having someone take a brief eye exam. Many latent print examiners, Sims says, would prefer iris analysis to face analysis simply because it holds static features that are easier to identify and compare.

“Faces pose more challenges than irises or fingerprints,” Sims says. “Some people might think it’s easy to compare faces because we do it all the time with people we know. But it’s very different to compare unfamiliar faces.”

Research has repeatedly shown that trained facial examiners consistently outperform novices. That’s because there’s a meticulous science to the art. Facial examiners will analyze the features of the face for many things, including asymmetry, contour, and relative placement. They’ll then perform a comparative analysis against other images or database entries. And, unlike some automated AI-powered models, facial examiners are able to explain how they arrived at their conclusion in an objective and process-oriented manner, which is particularly valuable in the justice-oriented field of forensics.

“Facial recognition technology and systems have changed exponentially in the last decade,” Sims says. “With AI and deep neural networks, it’s incredible how fast and accurate they are. But they’re still just a tool to help humans. And that’s where we come in.”

Training the Next Generation of Facial Examiners

Sims is the the director of the I-3 Face Center of Excellence (FaCE). When it was formed in 2015, FaCE offered only one class in facial identification training. Today, it’s expanded to eight different classes, with more in the pipeline. They offer 100 series, 200 series, 300 series, and 400 series courses.

“Our training classes are geared towards helping people learn how to do a comparison,” Sims says. “We teach people who have never compared anything before, and we also teach people who are already doing it and just need some additional training. Continuing education is important in every field, and it’s particularly important in forensics.”

The standardization of facial identification training is integral to the responsible development of the discipline. The field is still young, and forensic colleges don’t offer significant training in this area—yet. If and when they do, it’s pioneers like I-3 that curriculum designers will look to. It’s also where the corporate world, which has its own interest in facial identification, will look as well.

In late 2023, NEC, a multi-billion dollar electronics conglomerate, partnered with I-3 to implement forensic biometrics training. I-3 will provide training and operational support for customers using NEC’s facial recognition algorithms and systems in criminal investigations. While FaCE will continue to offer systems-agnostic training, the partnership has multiple benefits for the industry, chief among them being a large company like NEC instituting the best practice of making sure their users know how to do a competent, standards-based facial comparison.

The Future of Facial Identification

Facial identification dates back hundreds of years, but in its modern instantiation, it’s still relatively young. The Facial Identification Scientific Working Group (FISWG) only started in 2009, and it’s focused on not only training practitioners doing comparisons but also the systems capturing and rendering facial images and standardizing both in ways that benefit the discipline as a whole. Meanwhile, research is paving the way forward for more efficient and responsible facial identification.

“One of the things being looked at is how humans handle the cross-race effect,” Sims says. “Does somebody of European ancestry perform well in facial identification only on subjects of European ancestry? How do they perform on subjects of African or Asian ancestry? That’s really important research.”

The future of facial identification will also be driven by further innovations in facial recognition technology. Advanced algorithms and improved AI should be able to assist more with complicating factors such as poor lighting, low resolution, or partial visibility. Integration with other types of biometric screening—fingerprints, iris scans, or even gait analysis—could contribute to multimodal forensic identification systems. But the need for qualified human examiners will only increase in the near term.

“Part of the responsible use of facial recognition technology is having people who are trained to adjudicate the candidate list,” Sims says. “Not just anybody can do that. People who are untrained do not do well with unfamiliar faces.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

How VR is Used in Forensic Training and Crime Scene Reconstruction

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsHow VR is Used in Forensic Training and Crime Scene Reconstruction

The thing to remember about good VR scenarios is that while they can come off like video games, they aren’t. They’re data-driven scenarios. There isn’t a predetermined outcome or specific steps one must take.”

Charles Steele, MS, Continuing Lecturer of Physical Science and Forensic Science Coordinator, Purdue University Northwest (PNW)

Forensic training is going virtual. The ability to recreate elaborate crime scene scenarios in virtual reality (VR) has opened up new forms of education for future forensics professionals. Purdue University Northwest (PNW) has already implemented cutting edge VR training developed at the University’s Center for Innovation through Visualization and Simulation (CIVS) and marketed by CBF Forensics.

The VR training program at PNW is the first of its kind, but it’s not the only one, and more are likely on their way. VR’s use in forensic training and crime scene reconstruction offers benefits in cost, standardization, and accessibility. As VR’s underlying technology improves, its applications to forensics will extend even further. Its advantages over traditional forms of forensic training may mean it becomes the new standard quickly.

To learn more, read on.

Meet the Expert: Charles A. Steele, MS

Charles Steele is a continuing lecturer of physical science and forensic science coordinator at Purdue University Northwest (PNW). He teaches courses in forensics, chemistry, and physics, and mentors student research. Steele received both his BS in Physics and his MS in forensic science from the University of Illinois at Chicago.

Research is Steele’s driving motivation. At PNW, he has designed new methods for drug testing and worked with CIVS and UIC to develop a virtual reality crime scene. He is mentoring forensic students at both campuses in professional-level research in fingerprint detection, pattern evidence analysis, and drug testing. His personal research models how well jurors understand scientific evidence.

How VR Improves on Traditional Forensic Training

“Traditional crime scene education is a curated, staged event,” Steele says. “But it’s restricted by the ability of the teacher to know how to stage that event to look realistic. It lacks a national standard or even any oversight or guidance on how well it’s done. That’s where we got started, trying to get a standardization on crime scene processing training.”

Another issue with traditional crime scene training is that it’s not easy to reset the scenario for each individual student. As a result, it can become more observational than participatory education. Conversely, VR scenarios reset for each student and allow instructors to see and record their movements every step of the way. They also offer the opportunity for immersive and detailed customization.

“VR gives you the ability to curate the scene like you would normally, so you can put evidence in and take evidence out if you want,” Steele says. “But all of the evidence in our VR crime scene has a standalone laboratory component that can go back into the lab for the students to work on in the real world as well. That type of mixed media integration is where I think VR really has its strength.”

VR training also provides uniformity and accessibility: it requires little more than an Oculus headset and some software downloads, meaning institutions can acquire and run it more easily than setting up and taking down individual crime scene replicas. Training programs are also more easily updatable and as new technologies get incorporated, scenarios can become more sophisticated and specialized as needed.

The Benefits and Challenges of Using VR in Forensics Training

“The thing to remember about good VR scenarios is that while they can come off like video games, they aren’t,” Steele says. “They’re data-driven scenarios. There isn’t a predetermined outcome or specific steps one must take.”

In the early models of VR scenarios, programmers included more explicitly game-like functions: push a button, and a piece of evidence is put in a bag. But experts like Steele pointed out that in forensics training, every aspect of evidence collection—how the investigator bent down to inspect the area, how they picked something up, which type of bag they put it in, etc.—can be important.

Steele and his students use VR scenarios in forensics training that incorporate alternative light sources and placement tags. Students photograph what they’re looking at, and those photographs become part of a file for comparison. Footprints can be 3D modeled and used in class to match a type of footwear. The open-world style of the VR training mimics a real crime scene, while the game-like environment helps keep students engaged.

“It’s important that we view VR as a tool in our toolbox, but not the be all and end all,” Steele says. “We can’t lose sight of the fact that you still need a human teacher interacting with human students.”

VR training does face some challenges. If a user doesn’t focus correctly, they can experience nausea. And while VR headsets don’t have a steep learning curve, they still represent a foreign device to most Americans. Steele believes that this hurdle is part of what is preventing VR from being introduced in courtrooms for crime scene reconstruction—juries skew older and less tech-savvy than the average college student.

“It’s going to be a hard sell, and it’s a little bit down the line, but I do believe it’s coming,” Steele says.

The Future of VR in Forensics

VR is still young, but that youth is also a strength. As the underlying tech continues to evolve, so will VR’s applications in forensics and forensics training. One major leap forward would come from advances in high-speed data transport.

“Unlike video games that run well over Bluetooth, there’s a lot of data that comes out of a forensic scenario,” Steele says. “So we’re still cabled in, and the cabling becomes a leash. As data transfer technology gets better, these VR systems will become better and more operable.”

In the future, Steele sees two paths. In one, there’ll be a shift towards AR training. In the other, VR will incorporate additional elements like haptic sensors and tactile gloves. Both paths lead towards a similar destination: complex scenarios with intricate details that mimic work on an actual crime scene.

“Right now, we’re teaching people how to walk and what to look for,” Steele says. “The next stages are going to be teaching people how to actually touch and deal with evidence, and that’s going to require sensory input back. That is also going to dovetail into the instructor being able to see not just what the student did but actually feel what they felt. That’s coming.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

The Evolution of Touch DNA: Invisible Traces at Crime Scenes

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsThe Evolution of Touch DNA: Invisible Traces at Crime Scenes

It’s an ever-changing field, but what hasn’t really changed is the front end, where you have to look at a sample, or examine a piece of evidence. That’s where great attention to detail has to come in.”s.”

Robert O’Brien, Forensic Biology Section Lead, Global Forensic and Justice Center (GFJC), Florida International University (FIU)

In the landscape of forensic science, one of the most transformative developments has been the advent and refinement of touch DNA analysis. This cutting-edge technique, which allows forensic experts to extract and analyze genetic material from the mere remnants left by a person’s touch, has broadened the usefulness of biological evidence in criminal investigations.

Up until the late 20th century, forensic DNA analysis largely relied upon collecting bodily fluids. But the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology made it possible to analyze the small amounts of skin cells left behind by a person’s touch. DNA extraction and amplification techniques improved further in the early 21st century, with more sensitive instruments leading to wider use. Today, touch DNA is firmly in the mainstream.

Touch DNA is not a magic wand. Even with today’s sophisticated technology, not every touch DNA analysis leads to a conclusive result, and investigators and forensic scientists face challenges in evidence collection, processing, and interpretation. But touch DNA is here to stay, and its evolution is far from finished.

Read on to learn more about the benefits, challenges, and future of touch DNA analysis.

Meet the Expert: Robert O’Brien

Robert O’Brien is the forensic biology section lead at the Global Forensic and Justice Center (GFJC) at Florida International University (FIU). He conducts forensic biology research, including test plan design, and performs experiments to evaluate equipment and techniques used in biological collection and DNA analysis.

O’Brien has developed and delivered training for new technologies, including Rapid DNA instrumentation, and advises operators on tests and techniques available for field use in biological sample detection and screening. He also develops curricula for forensic DNA and serology training programs, delivering instruction in person and remotely.

Before joining GFJC in 2007, O’Brien served as a crime laboratory analyst in the biology section of the Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE), where he supervised and trained other forensic analysts. He has been granted access to input data into the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) and is qualified as an expert witness in DNA analysis.

The Benefits and Challenges of Touch DNA

“Over the years, touch DNA has changed largely because manufacturers have made more and more sensitive equipment,” O’Brien says. “Before, most labs wouldn’t even consider processing what we process today because they wouldn’t expect to get a result.”

Modern methods of touch DNA analysis can be highly effective, with applications in investigating everything from major crimes to minor thefts. But it’s so applicable that many investigators now send samples to the lab for analysis merely in the hopes of getting a result —and that can lead to backlogs. At the same time, the results of touch DNA analysis are not always straightforward. As instruments have higher and higher sensitivity levels, they’re more likely to pick up DNA from other individuals who have handled the same item.

O’Brien offers a hypothetical case example where, in a gas station robbery, eyewitness statements say the masked perpetrator’s ungloved hand touched the countertop in front of the cashier. Investigators could swab that area of the countertop where the ungloved hand touched, but the sampled area would likely include DNA from several individuals. That could lead to a complex mixture that’s hard to sort out. Which DNA belongs to people who visited the store lawfully, and which belongs to the perpetrator? The risk of mixed profiles and contamination underscore the importance of context and the process by which a sample is collected and processed.

“When a sample comes to the lab, the lab will look at what was collected and then typically speak to the investigator who collected it,” O’Brien says. “It helps to find out why this sample was collected and from where. Was it in an area of general use, where a lot of people might have touched it?”

These concerns materialized in the 2012 case of Lukis Anderson, a man wrongfully charged with murder based on touch DNA evidence. Anderson’s DNA was found on the fingernails of the murder victim, despite him having a solid alibi: he’d been hospitalized for severe intoxication at the time the crime was committed. Only later was it learned that the paramedics who had responded to the scene of the murder had also treated Anderson earlier in the night, inadvertently transferring trace amounts of his DNA in the process. Anderson was exonerated, but the challenges of touch DNA remain.

How Forensic Scientists Work with Touch DNA

After a sample is collected and sent to a lab, forensic scientists will seek to extract DNA from the sample, quantitate it, and then amplify it via PCR before putting it into a genetic analyzer. Genetic analyzers are relatively large instruments, and the most expensive instrument in the process.

The most common method used in genetic analyzers is capillary electrophoresis, where the amplified DNA samples are injected into capillaries filled with a polymer. An electric current is then applied, causing the DNA fragments to move through the polymer at speeds proportional to their size. A laser detects the fragments as they pass a specific point, and the data is used to generate a DNA profile.

Much of this process is automated and not particularly labor intensive. But it does require strict attention to detail, O’Brien says.

“One plate will typically hold 96 samples,” O’Brien says. “So if you’re doing a full plate, then you have 96 different wells that you’re pipetting into, and you’re working with very small volumes, so you have to be very careful.”

All forensic scientists in this area will need a degree in a hard science like biology or chemistry. The educational requirements are set in stone, especially for working with the FBI and their DNA database. Skillswise, one’s process must also be immaculate, as accurate pipetting and general clean lab techniques are crucial to the integrity of one’s analysis. O’Brien highlights attention to detail as particularly important. But in a field where everyone is of high intelligence, he also cautions his trainees in FIU’s DNA training program against becoming overly prideful.

“You must be willing and ready to admit when you make a mistake,” O’Brien says. “It’s so important. When you get to casework, everything you do could be going to court, and you may have to testify. So if you make a mistake, you have to be willing to admit it and learn from it. You can’t place the blame anywhere else.”

Future of Touch DNA

The technology around touch DNA will keep getting better: more reliable, more sensitive, and more applicable in processing samples that were, at one point, unprocessable.

One way in which that’s already occurring is through the rise of Rapid DNA analysis. This type of portable, on-scene test doesn’t require a forensic scientist. While it is generally only applicable in relatively straightforward circumstances, it does reduce the overall burden on labs and forensic scientists, allowing them to focus on more complex cases. Rapid DNA analysis may not require a forensic scientist on-site, expert forensic scientists are perfecting the process itself: GFJC is home to the nation’s first Rapid DNA Center of Excellence.

Another example of advancing touch DNA technology is the way next-generation sequencing (NGS), which is the kind used with services like 23andMe, has come to the forefront. Scientists can better sort out complex low-level mixtures by sequencing the DNA itself. This has enormous potential but is still expensive and time-intensive, so it remains largely the domain of private laboratories. But, over time, the associated costs will likely come down and bring NGS into even wider use.

“There are also high-level mixture deconvolution programs that can take complicated mixtures and sort them out,” O’Brien says. “Basically, they use mathematics that no human could easily do. A lot of labs are using these programs now, and they can process four- or five-person mixtures.”

To be involved in DNA analysis as a forensic scientist is to be part of a dynamic field. This is an area growing increasingly automated, with the more repetitive and laborious aspects trusted to algorithms and robotics. That automation comes with a price: many forensic biologists need to pick up skills in greasing O-rings and managing other technical components—skills not necessarily taught in the traditional undergraduate biology program.

“We’ve been doing more or less the same process for years, but it’s becoming a lot more automated due to the amount of cases requiring DNA,” O’Brien says. “So if you’re a lab person who likes doing everything yourself, you’re going to have to learn how to spend more of your time running robots and maintaining the instrument that’s doing the work.”

But no matter how technologically sophisticated touch DNA analysis gets, it will require a human element. O’Brien highlights the importance of thinking through the context of how a piece of evidence was collected, deciding where to sample from it, considering the behavior of the person whose DNA is being analyzed, reading on-scene reports, and reconstructing the crime in one’s mind. None of that can be rushed or automated—it’s the investigative mindset.

“It’s an ever-changing field, but what hasn’t really changed is the front end, where you have to look at a sample, examine a piece of evidence,” O’Brien says. “That’s where great attention to detail has to come in.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Follow the Money: Tax Evasion & Asset Recovery

Home Forensic Education Blog Follow the MoneyFollow the Money: Tax Evasion & Asset Recovery

“With enough sustained investigative resources, discipline, and leadership, there is really no such thing as a secret. You can eventually peel back the layers and ultimately get to the truth.”

Martin Kenney, Asset Recovery Lawyer, Founder and Managing Partner of Martin Kenney & Co (MKS)

In an increasingly global and digital economy, preventing, detecting, and prosecuting tax evasion is a major challenge for governments worldwide. Even knowing the size of the problem is hard: hidden assets are difficult to count.

Monetarily, the stakes are high. A report by the IRS projected that the gross tax gap—the difference between the nation’s estimated ‘true’ tax liability and the amount of tax paid on time—grew to $668 billion in 2021. While some of that figure was or will be recouped through late payments and enforcement efforts, the IRS still estimates that $542 billion of the gap comes from underreporting. And while that might be just an estimate, other large and objective figures in the world of tax evasion are available: in 2009, UBS agreed to pay $780 million in fines, penalties, and restitution to settle allegations that the Swiss bank helped Americans evade taxes by hiding assets in secret Swiss bank accounts.

Tax evasion isn’t a victimless crime, but it is an increasingly difficult one to track down. The lines between tax optimization and tax evasion can appear blurry even to a sophisticated observer. A multijurisdictional financial system, which increasingly includes digital transactions and cryptographically secured blockchains, has complicated matters further.

Read on to learn more about the modern tax landscape and how investigators hunt down tax evasion schemes and locate hidden assets.

Meet the Expert: Martin S. Kenney

Martin Kenney is one of the world’s leading asset recovery lawyers, specializing in multi-jurisdictional economic crime and international fraud. He is also a Visiting Professor at the School of Justice at UCLan, the University of Central Lancashire, a top criminology and policing academic center in the UK.

Kenney has acted for international banks, insurance companies, individual investors, and other private and governmental institutions. Based in the British Virgin Islands (BVI), he is the founder and managing partner of Martin Kenney & Co (MKS). The firm’s work lies at the intersection of cross-border insolvency, creditors’ rights, and complex commercial litigation.

Kenney is ranked among the world’s leading asset recovery lawyers worldwide by Chambers & Partners and is considered one of Who’s Who Legal (WWL) global elite Thought Leaders. From 2017-19 he was ranked as the world’s number one asset recovery lawyer offshore by WWL. He received the highest award given by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners, with 90,000 members worldwide, The Cressey Award, in 2014.Dr. Poovendran is a Fellow of IEEE and has received various, awards including the Distinguished Alumni Award, ECE Department, University of Maryland, College Park (2016); NSA LUCITE Rising Star (1999); NSF CAREER (2001); ARO YIP (2002); ONR YIP (2004); PECASE (2005); and Kavli Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences (2007).

Tax Evasion Versus Tax Optimization

Tax evasion is the act of deliberately avoiding the payment of taxes owed to the government by concealing income, inflating deductions, or using other illicit means to reduce tax liability. Tax evasion is distinct from tax optimization, which refers to the legal use of financial planning strategies to minimize tax liability and maximize after-tax income within the bounds of tax laws—the former is a crime, while the latter is shrewd accounting.

“In many countries with advanced taxing systems, where there’s a sizable tax on income or capital gain, or upon departure or death, the system rewards those who can afford sophisticated tax planning,” Kenney says. “Such planning can help them lawfully avoid or minimize their tax liability.”

While tax evasion and tax optimization are distinct, they can share some behavioral motivators. Some nation’s tax systems are needlessly, but almost purposefully, complex. They can be punishing to entrepreneurs and business owners, with the government acting as a silent partner who takes 50 percent of the productive yield, risk-free, year after year. Searching for ways to reduce one’s tax bill is natural, and, in some cases, good business sense.

“Once tax rates get over 50 percent, you can end up in a situation where, by hook or by crook, revenues actually go down for a government,” Kenney says. “That’s because people will find ways and means to skirt their tax obligations in some way—sometimes legally and sometimes illegally.”

From a distance, the line between evasion and optimization can look blurry. But some cases of tax evasion are unequivocally criminal: concealing money in offshore accounts, falsely inflating deductions, and deliberately not reporting income are all clear-cut examples of tax evasion, which governments punish harshly.

“If you willfully misrepresent your financial condition on your tax return, or willfully conceal income, then you’re committing a crime called tax evasion,” Kenney says. “And the state seeks to disincentivize you from doing that by using the threat of prison.”

How Investigators Track Down Modern Tax Evasion

The breakthrough in the 2009 UBS case came from a whistleblower, former UBS banker Bradley Birkenfeld, who provided key details to US investigators about the bank’s methods of assisting Americans in evading taxes. Those methods included fake investments, shell companies, and undeclared bank accounts. UBS also leveraged Switzerland’s infamous tradition of bank secrecy—a tradition which has been severely weakened in the aftermath of the 2009 settlement.

“The Swiss banking community has been brought to its knees,” Kenney says. “If you go to Switzerland now, as a US passport holder, and try to open up a Swiss bank account—good luck to you. The work of the Department of Justice (DOJ) has really made a difference.”

Modern cases of tax evasion include more evidence than ever before, as more and more financial transactions occur digitally, and leave receipts. The sheer amount of data in a tax evasion investigation can become its own challenge, as can the time it takes to move through the legal processes needed to access that data.

Several different agencies can investigate tax evasion. Some of the primary entities in the investigation of tax evasion in the US include the Criminal Investigation Division (CID) of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), the Department of Justice (DOJ) Tax Division, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) as part of the Department of the Treasury (DOT). If tax evasion is linked to other crimes, it may also be investigated through collaboration with agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) or the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).

Whether it’s investigated by federal agencies, consultancies, lawyers, or forensic accountants, there are some general themes to how tax evasion is investigated. The first step is to identify that tax evasion is indeed taking place—this can happen via whistleblowers, audits, or suspicious activity reports from financial institutions. Next comes the data gathering of tax returns, bank statements, property records, and all those digital receipts. Finally, forensic accountants can work to trace the pathways between accounts and individuals, looking for hidden assets, unreported income, and fraudulent activity. Collaborating with other experts and other agencies, investigators can proceed with additional interviews and subpoenas, or even undercover operations, to build their case.

“With enough sustained investigative resources, discipline, and leadership, there is really no such thing as a secret,” Kenney says. “You can eventually peel back the layers and ultimately get to the truth.”

The Future of Investigating Tax Evasion

The future of investigating tax evasion will continue to be influenced by further advancements in technology and international regulations. Cryptocurrencies are facilitating an increasing number of cross-border transactions, some of which are lawful and others which are illicit. Tracing those transactions on the blockchain requires investigators to have a new and complex skill set.

Most blockchain transactions are completely transparent, but their innate complexity can obfuscate who controls which account at what time. More purposeful forms of evasion exist on the blockchain, too: mixers like TornadoCash or privacy-minded blockchains like Monero require specialized software to track. Recovery of illicit digital assets is also trickier than in the world of traditional finance.

“With blockchain tracing, you can see where the money went, but you may not know who stole it and who is holding it without doing more investigation of the traditional kind that we use in tracing traditional value,” Kenney says.

The most important trend in tax evasion investigation, however, is their increasingly multi-jurisdictional and global nature. Governments are working to update their regulations to adapt to that reality. One step in that direction is the development of Taxpayer Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs): bilateral agreements that aim to facilitate access to financial information across borders.

“Particularly in larger tax evasion cases, the case and the investigation are dependent on getting information about a taxpayer’s offshore companies or trusts,” Kenney says. “And, until relatively recently, that information was almost impossible for an onshore taxing authority like the IRS to gain access to. But Taxpayer Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs) have revolutionized how onshore tax investigators, criminal or civil, gather information.”

This type of international cooperation is still relatively new. In English Common law, what’s known as Lord Mansfield’s revenue rule—which dates back to 1775—holds that it is against public policy for a court to enforce or recognize a foreign revenue or penal law.

“For more than two centuries, that rule has made it nearly impossible for the revenue authority of one country to seek to collect a tax debt in another, or to gather information regarding a taxpayer’s affairs if located abroad,” Kenney says. “However, this principle has, over the course of the last 30 years, been substantially eroded by an ever-expanding quilt of international tax law enforcement cooperation treaties, protocols, and agreements among sovereigns.”

As money is increasingly borderless, the way money is ruled over and investigated will need to adapt, too. Staying abreast of these new types of treaties, agreements, and regulations—while continuing to work inside an increasingly complex and global financial system—will be a key trend for future investigators of tax evasion.

“The cross-border traffic to enforce tax obligations is rising every day,” Kenney says. “We’re not just globalizing an economy—there’s also an internationalization of revenue law. The cross-border recognition, enforcement, and exchange of information is absolutely critical to understanding this area. It’s revolutionizing the ability to enforce high-value tax obligations in a cross-border context.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

How Portable Instruments are Changing Forensic Investigations

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesHow Portable Instruments are Changing Forensic Investigations

With portable instruments, we really have a chance to bring the science to the scene,” Dr. Kammrath says. “We can get science involved in the decision-making stages. That can be incredibly valuable.”

Dr. Brooke Kammrath, Professor, University of New Haven, Forensic Science Department

The rise of portable instruments is blurring the boundary between the crime scene and the lab.

Handheld devices are not new to investigations—consider the magnifying glass or the breathalyzer test—but their growing complexity and efficacy are changing the way modern investigations are conducted. Samples that previously needed to be sent to a laboratory can now be analyzed at the scene. Combined with an increasingly skilled investigative workforce, this cuts down on processing times and opens up exciting new possibilities for criminal justice and forensic science fields.

Portable instruments are changing the way modern investigations are conducted, but they come with their own challenges, too. To learn more about how portable instruments are being used now, and what they might look like in the future, read on.

Meet the Expert: Brooke W. Kammrath, PhD, ABC-GKE

Dr. Brooke Kammrath is a professor in the Forensic Science Department at the University of New Haven and executive director of the Henry C. Lee Institute of Forensic Science. She is an internationally recognized forensic science researcher and mentor, with a varied research agenda that includes the uniting of microscopy with spectroscopy, the identification and characterization of microscopic samples of forensic interest, the statistical analysis of trace, pattern and impression evidence, portable instrumentation, and investigations into the significance and impact of physical evidence.

Dr. Kammrath is a past president of the New York Microscopical Society (NYMS), and on the Governing Boards of NYMS, the Society for Applied Spectroscopy (SAS), and the Eastern Analytical Symposium (EAS). She serves as an associate editor for the Journal of Forensic Sciences and Applied Spectroscopy Practica. She is also a certified criminalist by the American Board of Criminalistics (ABC).

The Evolution of Portable Instruments in Forensics

“The use of portable instruments is actually quite extensive,” Dr. Kammrath says. “The first portable spectrometer was for the military—ion mobility spectrometry (IMS)—but even before that we were using Kitagawa tubes, which are gas identification tubes, and there were other things people were using in the field to identify materials.”

An important step forward occurred in the late 1990s when a team of scientists at SensIR Technologies, Inc. pioneered a portable infrared system that brought lab-level spectroscopy to the field in a suitcase-sized object. Initially, it did not find widespread use. In investigations, spectroscopy remained largely confined to the lab—until a sense of urgency around on-site crime scene analysis arose several years later.

“After 9/11 and the Amerithrax attacks, all of a sudden there was a huge recognition of the need for portable instrumentation in the field,” Dr. Kammrath says.

Today’s most advanced portable instruments can conduct sophisticated on-site spectroscopic analysis. That can be particularly valuable when drugs, explosives, or other hazardous substances are suspected. On-site analysis can save time, and lives. And, when used correctly, these portable instruments help ensure that science and the scientific method are leading investigations.

Challenges in the Use of Portable Instruments in Forensics

Part of the appeal of today’s advanced portable instruments is that they do not require an expert to operate them. The user interface is often relatively simple—most even have a video screen that walks the user through the process, step-by-step. But just because the instrument is easy to use, doesn’t mean it’s foolproof.

“One challenge is with informed sample selection,” Dr. Kammrath says. “What do you sample, and how do you interpret the data?”

For a law enforcement officer who finds a bag of white powder, it might not be too puzzling what to sample or look for. But even in seemingly straightforward cases, human bias can still creep in. Dr. Kammrath points to the case of Shai Werts. Werts was pulled over by police officers, who proceeded to scrape a white material off the exterior surface of his car and test it on-scene for the presence of illegal substances. The result of the test came back negative, but the officers misread the results and arrested Werts for possession of cocaine—when what they’d tested was actually bird excrement.

“The other issue is with interpretation,” Dr. Kammrath says. “A lot of samples can give challenging results, and the algorithms that are used to come up with whether a substance is fentanyl or not, for instance, aren’t always correct. They’re getting better, but there are still times where it’s questionable. So the person who is running the test needs a way to ensure or understand the results that the instrument gives.”

Some portable instruments have implemented “Reachback,” which allows for sampled data to be sent, 24-7, to a chemist for further analysis. Currently, that Reachback is often coordinated through the instrument companies themselves, but such a capability could be configured to be sent back to a specific forensic lab—effectively connecting forensic scientists, remotely, to the scene. But there’s still a limit to what’s possible on-scene right now.

“Not all portable instruments are the same as their benchtop versions,” Dr. Kammrath says. “Portable Raman spectrometers are not as good as the benchtop Ramans. The portable mass spectrometers don’t have the same resolution that the benchtop systems do. So they’re still going to be, in my book, presumptive tests that need to be sent back to the lab eventually for confirmatory testing.”

The technology will continue to get better. Some types of portable instruments, especially portable infrared systems, are already as good as their benchtop equivalents. Expert chemists and engineers are continually working on miniaturizing critical hardware elements. More and more parts of the lab will continue to move into the field—but not all of them.

Portable instruments are best used when they can provide actionable information. A quick analysis of a thread left on a body at a scene might reveal it to be made of red and blue fibers; that information passed onto officers canvassing the area near the crime scene can be a crucial detail. But knowing whether the thread is made of polyester or nylon or cotton would be less actionable. It’d also take more time, and might even distract or lead to false positives.

“I’m not a person who thinks that we should bring the whole lab to the field,” Dr. Kammrath says. “It depends on the application.”

The Future of Portable Instruments in Forensics

Today, portable instruments are most commonly used when time and safety are at a premium in an investigation. If drugs are present on the scene, a suspect is liable to be detained right away, making accurate on-site testing consequential. Explosives and other hazardous substances present immediate safety risks. And in arson investigations, on-site analysis is often crucial in determining a fire’s origin. But as the prominence of portable instruments grows, so will their array of applications.

“There are a large number of applications for portable instruments and a lot of areas of potential research,” Dr. Kammrath says. “It’s very exciting.”

There are hundreds of thousands of portable instruments already deployed in the field, not only in forensic science but also in agriculture and food science. More use begets more research begets more use—and research in portable instruments is bringing science fiction closer.

“The ideal portable instrument would be rapid, reliable, and create a reviewable record,” Dr. Kammrath says. “The Holy Grail is the tricorder.”

The tricorder, popularized in Star Trek, is a fictional device that quickly and non-invasively analyzes all the properties of the sample it scans. It can identify solids, liquids, and gasses—both as pure substances and in all ranges of concentration. It provides no false positives and no false negatives. And, crucially, it combines and cross-references its analyses, drawing conclusions from multiple data sets.

“We’re nowhere near achieving that today,” Dr. Kammrath says. “I think we’ll always need a toolbox approach, where you have more than one instrument, and you need to know the capabilities and limitations of each instrument in order to know which to use at what time.”

While waiting for the tricorder to materialize, the next hurdle for forensic scientists is getting current, non-fictional portable instruments into the hands of first responders. Cost and complexity are often cited as challenges, but these devices are not as expensive as one might think: over the long run, they may save law enforcement agencies money.

Portable instruments also have uses in traditional laboratories, which can be used for presumptive testing. Their smaller size, ease of use, and reproducible data are all valuable to the forensic scientist working in the lab. But more forensic scientists will be needed in the field, too, especially as portable instruments grow in sophistication. It’s not just the lab moving into the field, but forensic scientists and science itself.

“With portable instruments, we really have a chance to bring the science to the scene,” Dr. Kammrath says. “We can get science involved in the decision-making stages. That can be incredibly valuable.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Forensic AI: The Increasing Automation of Legal Studies

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsForensic AI: The Increasing Automation of Legal Studies

As much as we could talk negatively about how AI will take our jobs in part or the whole, you have to embrace it. At the end of the day, there will still be lawyers, doctors, journalists, police officers, and real estate agents. The work may just look a little different. Learn the trade, but also be two to three steps ahead.”

Felix Shipkevich, JD, Founder and Principal of Shipkevich PLLC, Hofstra University Law Professor

Artificial intelligence (AI) penetrates nearly every sector of the modern world, and law and legal studies are no exception. Intelligent algorithms are revolutionizing legal studies by automating numerous tasks that have historically been labor-intensive and time-consuming. From document analysis to case prediction, AI-driven automation is becoming increasingly prevalent, eliminating the need for tedious paperwork and enabling more efficient and accurate work.

However, unlike other fields, AI integration into the legal field is still in its infancy. “It is going to fundamentally change the profession, in some ways better, in some ways worse. I think it’s too early to make a prediction,” says Felix Shipkevich, founder and principal of Shipkevich PLLC and Hofstra University law professor. “It’s just way too early. I hope it makes things more efficient and more affordable for consumers.”

There are some areas of the legal profession and legal studies that are implementing AI. Companies like OpenAI are leading the charge in this new frontier, creating advanced algorithms that can sift through vast amounts of legal data in a fraction of the time it would take a human to achieve the same task. These advancements are not only streamlining legal practices but also opening up new possibilities for the application of AI in legal studies.

Some companies are even working on legal document drafting with varying levels of success. “In the future, for example, if you are renting an apartment and need to renew it, why pay an attorney to write the new lease? Consumers should be able to access certain tools without paying for expensive legal services. That’s where AI could become helpful.” says Shipkevich.

Keep reading to learn more about where AI is succeeding in the legal, where it is falling short, what the future might hold, and advice for aspiring law students.

Meet the Expert: Felix Shipkevich, JD

Felix Shipkevich is the founder and principal of Shipkevich PLLC, a New York City-based law firm focusing on transactional and litigation services in global financial services, debt relief and settlement, fintech, and emerging digital currency sectors. He is also a special professor of law at his alma mater, the Maurice A. Deane School of Law at Hofstra University. He currently teaches courses on the business and policies of cryptocurrencies and corporate finance law.

Additionally, he gives talks on topics such as financial technology, digital currency, and regulation issues in the debt settlement industry. He has participated at gatherings across the United States, Europe, and Asia, including the Federal Bar Association’s “Blockchain: From Innovation to Regulation, Blockchain Law Summit’s Blockchain and Cryptocurrency Regulations in the U.S. and Abroad,” and many others.

Where AI Is Helping Lawyers

AI is redefining how legal professionals perform their tasks, particularly in areas of research and due diligence. Firms can now utilize AI-powered platforms to conduct exhaustive searches of legal databases and sort through and analyze case law, statutes, and secondary sources: “Leading legal research companies have been doing a great job integrating AI. They can help attorneys navigate research, pick out better cases, and use these cases to make their argument versus burning the midnight oil and trying to digest the entire case themselves. These companies have done a good job over the years of getting to the bottom line quicker than before,” says Shipkevich.

This technology substantially reduces the time spent on these tasks and increases accuracy and efficiency, allowing lawyers to focus more on interpretation and strategy.

AI also assists in contract analysis by identifying and minimizing potential risks and streamlining the negotiation process. These advancements represent the tip of the iceberg regarding how AI can eventually transform the legal landscape.

Where AI Still Has Room To Grow

While AI has made significant strides in the legal field, there are still areas where its utility remains limited. Courtroom litigation, for example, is one area that continues to rely heavily on the human element. The nuances of in-person interaction, emotional intelligence, and persuasive oratory are aspects AI cannot currently replicate.

Also, ethical, privacy, and security concerns surrounding AI use in legal matters necessitate a cautious approach. Before AI can be fully integrated into these areas, regulations and safeguards must be developed to ensure responsible use.

One area where Shipkevich sees AI falling short is in writing legal documents: “Where I think there’s a lot of need is in legal drafting. It’s both transactional work like contracts and litigation-related work,” he says. He goes on to share that colleagues have seen an associate try to use ChatGPT to draft simple default notices, and it was painfully obvious that a lawyer didn’t write the document.

AI in Legal Studies

As a special professor of law at Hofstra University, Shipkevich has seen firsthand how students use AI in the classroom. “I have seen AI used by students, and it always has huge downsides. The first time I saw it was last spring, when a student submitted their first paper, and it was clearly ChatGPT. I confronted the student, and he admitted it,” he shares. “AI writing is very dry and lacks emotion. It’s like watching paint dry.”

He continues, “Thankfully, I think we’re still at the stage where an intelligent person can easily distinguish original written material versus AI material. You probably will not be able to distinguish it easily in the future. I don’t think we had that stage where you could still distinguish it. Students who use AI put themselves in peril first to potentially fail the course, but second, they’re not doing themselves a favor and don’t learn the necessary skills.”

Future Developments

Looking ahead, the integration of AI in the legal field is set to increase significance. Currently, when using AI, there is no way to know if the cases it uses are actual cases without further research. “I have discussed this with several litigators who all say it’s terrible, but in a couple of years, as AI begins to prove itself and the code improves, it’s going to get smart,” says Shipkevich. “I wouldn’t be surprised if, in the very near future, we will see actual cases argued with more precision with less human error than we ever thought possible.”

AI will have the opportunity to excel in the future by helping lawyers decide how to handle a case: “If you’re a good litigator, you’re supposed to find your best and worst arguments. Average litigators have no idea what the best argument is, and they make their case in hopes that something will stick to the wall,” explains Shipkevich. “As a good litigator, it takes hours to find your best arguments, make a hierarchy, do the research, and confer with your colleagues. AI might be able to do this in seconds eventually. It could give you a list of talking points and rebuttals.”

Another area where AI is anticipated to play a significant role in the automation of legal discovery, which is the process in which lawyers gather evidence for a case. With the sheer volume of currently available electronic data, AI-based technology can expedite this process, accurately search for specific keywords, and even detect patterns the human eye would otherwise overlook.

Advice For Aspiring Law Students

For those aspiring to enter the legal profession, it is essential to understand the increasing role that technology, specifically AI, plays within the field. It’s no longer sufficient to excel solely at traditional legal skills.

“As much as we could talk negatively about how AI will take our jobs in part or the whole, you have to embrace it,” says Shipkevich. “At the end of the day, there will still be lawyers, doctors, journalists, police officers, and real estate agents. The work may just look a little different. Learn the trade, but also be two to three steps ahead. So instead of being skeptical about AI or using it to your advantage to avoid writing, learn how to write well and how to use AI to make writing easier.”

Forensic AI: The Increasing Automation of Digital Forensics

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesForensic AI: The Increasing Automation of Digital Forensics

The digital forensics industry—and, more broadly, the cybersecurity industry—has recognized the importance of integrating automation and artificial intelligence in their solutions and products, reducing the need for human interaction with the data rather than eliminating it.

Raymond Choo, PhD, Cloud Technology Endowed Professorship at the University of Texas, San Antonio

Digital devices and data are everywhere. In such a saturated environment, digital forensics—which is the process of uncovering and interpreting electronic data for use in investigations—is the hunt for smaller and smaller needles in an exponentially increasing haystack. Advances in AI and artificial intelligence could be part of the solution.

AI is being implemented in practically every field and discipline, and digital forensics is no exception. But it’s not a plug-and-play fix. The field of forensics requires unique considerations. Human experts are still needed to audit, assist, and interpret the findings of AI-powered tools. To keep pace with the future, aspiring digital forensics specialists seeking their education will likely need to select programs prioritizing AI, automation, and other forms of cutting-edge tech.

The partnership between AI and automation in digital forensics is already underway. Read on to learn more about the associated challenges and opportunities and where it’s headed next.

Meet the Expert: Kim-Kwang Raymond Choo, PhD

Dr. Raymond Choo holds the Cloud Technology Endowed Professorship at the University of Texas, San Antonio, where he is also the assistant department chair of Information Systems and Cyber Security (ISCS). He received his PhD in information technology from Queensland University of Technology, Australia. His research interests include blockchain, big data analytics, cybersecurity, and digital forensics. His heavily-cited work has been funded by NASA, the National Security Agency, the US Department of Defense, and many others.

Dr. Choo is an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Distinguished Speaker and IEEE Computer Society Distinguished Visitor (2021-2023). In 2015, he and his team won the Digital Forensics Research Challenge organized by Germany’s University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. He is the recipient of the 2022 IEEE Hyper-Intelligence TC Award for Excellence in Hyper-Intelligence Systems, the 2022 IEEE TC on Homeland Security Research and Innovation Award, the 2022 IEEE TC on Secure and Dependable Measurement Mid-Career Award, and the 2019 IEEE TC on Scalable Computing Award for Excellence in Scalable Computing.

The Use of AI & Automation in Digital Forensics

“The digital forensics industry—and, more broadly, the cybersecurity industry—has recognized the importance of integrating automation and artificial intelligence in their solutions and products,” Dr. Choo says.

AI and automation excel at performing repetitive tasks. Think of brute-forcing a nine-digit password: it’s impractical for a human, but trivial for a machine. That makes AI and automation a perfect fit for digital forensics, where the increasing volume and complexity of disaggregated data makes manual processes infeasible.

AI algorithms can sift through massive datasets quickly, flagging potentially relevant information for follow-up. Machine learning models can be trained to recognize particular digital artifacts, such as images, text, or patterns of malicious activity. Automated tools can also detect patterns within the noise, which may fuel predictive capabilities.

Challenges in the Use of AI & Automation in Digital Forensics

But AI and automation are not flawless. Training data and algorithms can contain implicit, unintended biases that replicate themselves in skewed results. Without proper oversight, no automated system can be considered fully reliable.

“Existing commercial digital forensics tools support automation to some extent, but there is still a need for a human expert,” Dr. Choo says.

Many AI-powered tools can yield extremely compelling results, but most aren’t adept at explaining how they arrived at those results. This type of opaque system is referred to as a “black box.” A black box system may not be a concern for the average end-user of a large language model (LLM) like ChatGPT.

But in forensics, where findings may be used in court to determine fault, having transparent and auditable decision-making during the investigative process is not a nice to have—it’s a must. Newer forms of eXplainable AI (XAI), working in concert with human experts, could be the answer.

“In our NSA-funded project, we proposed a ‘Human-in-the-Loop Explainable-AI-Enabled Vulnerability Detection, Investigation, and Mitigation’ (HXAI-VDIM) system, where the security analyst or forensic investigator is integrated into the man-machine loop, leveraging eXplainable AI (XAI) to combine AI and Intelligence Assistants (IA) in amplifying human intelligence in both proactive and reactive processes,” Dr. Choo says.

The Future of Automation in Digital Forensics

The future of digital forensics will likely never be fully automated, but it will be increasingly hybrid, and tomorrow’s aspiring digital forensics experts will receive markedly different educations than the current crop of industry veterans.

Dr. Choo’s paper for the 2021 National Cyber Summit (NCS) included a two-year scan of digital forensics programs across the country, focusing on challenges and opportunities in digital forensics education. That paper found a lack of standardization and structure in new and existing digital forensics programs, which were scattered between different colleges and departments.

“We also observed the need to introduce contemporary and emerging technologies, and topics such as automation, into digital forensics programs,” Dr. Choo says. “Hence, our new bachelor’s degree in applied cyber analytics is designed to train students in using artificial intelligence and analytics to solve cybersecurity and forensics problems and challenges.”

Digital forensics will continue to evolve rapidly in the coming years. Advances in AI, IoT, cloud computing, and even quantum computing are already opening up new horizons. While the technology increases in power and capability, it will fall on tomorrow’s digital forensics experts to assist in the accuracy, efficiency, and accountability of those tools.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Graduate Certificate Programs for Forensics and CSI

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesGraduate Certificate Programs for Forensics and CSI

Many recent college graduates may complete a bachelor’s degree without specific career goals in mind. What interested someone at 17 or 18 may have lost its luster after four years of schooling or students may only be exposed to some careers as they near the completion of their degree or even after a few years of professional experience.

For people for whom this rings true, a graduate certificate in forensic science and crime scene investigation can come in handy. This type of certificate can provide the additional training needed by working professionals who want to build new skills or supplement existing ones so that they can pursue a career in this fascinating field. For those who are particularly ambitious, a graduate certificate can also build the foundation for later completion of a master’s degree, as schools often allow these certificate credits to be transferred over.

As you look through our list, you’ll find variations among the certificates, with some available online and others requiring on-campus classroom or lab experience. The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) has accredited very few graduate certificate programs, but those that do have this accreditation have been noted on this list.

George Washington University

George Washington University, located right in the heart of the nation’s capital, provides students with the option to continue their learning through a graduate certificate in forensic investigation, accredited through the AAFS. With a slightly different purview than a certificate in forensic science, this program focuses on crime scene investigation and processes.

The program requires five classes of core work (15 credits) and one elective class at three credits for an 18-credit program. Students can later use their credit hours to complete a master’s degree in forensic science with a concentration in crime scene investigation.

The curriculum includes courses such as photography in the forensic sciences; science of fingerprints; crime scene investigation; medicolegal death investigation; and investigation of child abuse. Students only need a bachelor’s degree from an accredited university to be accepted for this program.

Location: Washington, DC
Accreditation: AFSS; Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE)
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $1,950 per credit

Iowa State University

Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa, allows students to complete a graduate certificate in forensic science available through the Department of Anthropology. The certificate program is interdisciplinary and helps students learn about research and development and the technologies and science important to counter-terrorism.

To complete the certificate, students need to take 12 credits, 10 of which can be selected from a broad list of classes including issues in crime and justice or principles of toxicology. A one-credit course that includes an off-campus seminar and another one-credit course of independent study round out the school’s certificate program. Some of the courses in the curriculum are an introduction to molecular biology techniques; medical bacteriology; current issues in crime and justice; characterization methods in materials science; nondestructive evaluation; and forensic anthropology.

It should be noted that the certificate program is designed to complement a student’s education who is pursuing a master’s program in another discipline such as anthropology.

Location: Ames, IA
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: Residents of IA ($5,498 per semester); non-residents of IA ($13,924 per semester)

University of Massachusetts Lowell

UMass Lowell provides a graduate certificate in forensic criminology that can be completed entirely online. This program is ideal for full-time graduate students and working professionals who are interested in taking this certificate part-time. The certificate should provide useful skills to those working in fields like criminal justice, law, nursing, public health, psychology, and social work.

Two core classes are required as are two electives that include options such as criminological theory, sex crimes & offenders, victimology, and mental health & criminal justice. Students should note that not all of the elective classes are available online. However, course descriptions are provided on the website, giving students additional insight into the course selections they can make in completing this program.

Applicants to the program must have a baccalaureate degree with a minimum grade point average of 2.8 for acceptance into this certificate program. The faculty of the program includes full-time faculty members who are experts in their fields and adjunct faculty who bring real-world experience to online classroom discussions.

Location: Lowell, MA
Accreditation: New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $585 per credit

Mercyhurst University

Mercyhurst University, in Erie, Pennsylvania, launched a year-long graduate-level on-campus certificate program in forensic and biological anthropology in the fall of 2014. The program allows students to expand their learning beyond the undergraduate level into areas that interest them. Students who like forensic anthropology will be able to gain practical experience and also be better prepared for graduate school applications.

The five-course program is particularly geared at helping students who want to complete the master’s degree in forensic and biological anthropology at the school to fill in their learning gaps. Made up of 15 to 18 credits, the program includes courses such as forensic archaeology; fragmentary human osteology; biological anthropology perspectives of death; geoarchaeology; and paleoanthropology.

Admission requirements include a completed online application, a bachelor’s degree in any discipline from an accredited school, official transcripts from all post-secondary institutions attended, a current resume, a letter of intent, three letters of recommendation, GRE scores, a personal interview, and TOEFL or IELTS scores for international applicants whose records are written in a language other than English.

Location: Erie, PA
Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months
Estimated Tuition: $1,026 per credit

The University of Florida

The University of Florida in Gainesville offers various graduate-level certificates in forensic science to help meet the needs of working professionals. These include forensic drug chemistry, forensic death investigation, forensic DNA and serology, and forensic toxicology. All certificates can be completed entirely online and require students to do 15 credits of coursework. Students completing the certificates will be well-trained in analytic techniques, forensic science, and lab quality control.

The forensic death investigation certificate includes courses such as forensic analysis of DNA; forensic anthropology; and introduction to forensic medicine. The certificate in forensic DNA & serology includes instruction in biological evidence and serology; blood distribution and spatter; forensic analysis of DNA; and mammalian molecular biology. The forensic toxicology certificate includes coursework in drug biotransformation & molecular mechanisms of toxicity; forensic toxicology; general toxicology; and toxic substances. Finally, the graduate certificate in forensic drug chemistry includes courses such as forensic toxicology; synthetic medicinal chemistry; medicinal chemistry of drugs of abuse; and pharmaceutical analysis.

Applicants will need a baccalaureate degree in a natural science subject from one of the institutional accreditors with an upper-division grade point average of 2.0 or higher to apply for the program. Applicants whose native language is not English should submit TOEFL or IELTS test scores.

Location: Gainesville, FL
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $575 to $625 per credit

National University

National University is based in La Jolla, California, but has campuses throughout the state and one in Henderson, Nevada. NU offers a graduate certificate in forensic and crime scene investigations which can be completed online or on campus. The certificate is designed to provide new skills to those who want to enter the forensics and crime scene field or are already employed in it. Students who complete the certificate may be able to apply some or all of their credits toward a master’s degree in forensic science through the school.

Seven courses, comprising 31.5 quarter units are required for the certificate. As part of the program, students will delve into topics such as forensic pathology; crime scene investigation; advanced criminalistics; digital evidence; law and criminal procedure; and fingerprint analysis.

Location: San Diego, CA
Accreditation: WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC)
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $872 per quarter unit

Iona College

Iona College, in New Rochelle, New York, is another school providing a graduate certificate that focuses on forensic criminology and criminal justice systems. The certificate is designed for students who have careers in forensic science in mind or who are already working in the field. It could also be appropriate for those working in criminal justice, law and paralegal studies, nursing, psychology, or social work.

Students are required to take five three-credit classes completing a total of 15 credits. The curriculum explores topics such as victimology; profiling violent crimes; advanced deviant behavior; advanced criminology; and forensic health issues, the law, and the criminal justice system.

Location: New Rochelle, NY
Accreditation: Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $1,360 per credit

The University of New Haven

The University of New Haven in Connecticut has several graduate-level certificates available to those who already have a bachelor’s or even a master’s degree. These certificates may be perfect for people who want to enroll in a short course of learning at the graduate level.

The school’s criminal investigations certificate, for instance, is 12 credits in total and entails the completion of three required courses and one elective class. The curriculum includes topics such as title IX and predator investigations; investigative intricacies in death investigations; crimes involving children; domestic violence and abuse investigations.

Candidates applying to this certificate program must complete the graduate school application form and submit official transcripts showing completion of the undergraduate or baccalaureate degree along with two letters of recommendation.

Other certificates available in the school include criminal justice management, financial crimes investigation, forensic psychology, forensic genetic genealogy, cybercrime investigation, and many more.

Location: West Haven, CT
Accreditation: New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC)
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $1,055 per credit

Stevenson University

Stevenson University offers an entirely online graduate certificate program in crime scene investigation providing students with the knowledge and skills needed for evaluating crime scenes and selecting the appropriate steps that have to be followed to document, collect, preserve, and process evidence. Students in this program will be trained in processing forensic evidence, ethically reporting findings, and effectively communicating these findings in a courtroom setting.

To get accepted into the program, applicants must complete an online application, have a bachelor’s degree from a regionally accredited institution with a minimum cumulative grade point average of 3.0, and submit official college transcripts from all previous academic work.

Comprising 18 credits, the program includes courses such as a survey of forensic science; crime scene photography; physical evidence at crime scenes; crime scene investigation; and pattern analysis.

Location: Owings Mills, MD
Accreditation: Commission on Higher Education, Middle States Association of Colleges and Universities
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: $705 per credit

The University of North Carolina at Wilmington

The University of North Carolina at Wilmington offers an online graduate certificate program in forensic science: crime scene investigation (CSI) providing students with the necessary training, experience, and a deep theoretical understanding about the application of methods, techniques, and proper procedures of forensic investigation and evidence recovery.

Admission requirements for the program include a bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university in the U.S. or its equivalent, official transcripts of all college coursework, a statement of purpose, a current resume, and three letters of recommendation.

Consisting of 18 credits, the program includes courses such as forensic science foundations; seminar in crime science investigation professional development; expert testimony and challenges in court; crime scene photography; research in forensic science; and death investigations.

Graduates of the program will be prepared to secure entry-level forensic science positions with job titles such as crime scene technicians, crime scene investigators, crime scene analysts, forensic investigators, forensic science technicians, and evidence technicians.

Location: Wilmington, NC
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months or less
Estimated Tuition: Residents of NC ($276.62 per credit); non-residents of NC ($1,119.73 per credit)

Methodology

No list of graduate certificate programs is complete without the acknowledgment that there are many other certificates available at the graduate level. However, for this list the following three considerations were kept top-of-mind when selecting the schools listed above:

The graduate certificate specifically ties into crime scene analysis, investigation, or forensics. Many additional graduate-level certificates in forensics can be found, but they correlate to very niche fields, such as computer forensics or forensic accounting.
Most of these programs do provide an option for an elective or electives, giving students the choice in personalizing their certificate or gearing it toward the subject or subjects that interest them.
The programs included above are all offered by not-for-profit institutions that have earned regional accreditation for their overall academic rigor.

Farheen Gani

Writer

Follow the Money: Political Corruption

Home Forensic Education Blog Follow the MoneyFollow the Money: Political Corruption

“Typically, political corruption cases don’t walk in through the front door. You hear things, you look at things, and you have to cultivate all these relationships to get people to talk.”

Michael “Bret” Hood, Former FBI Special Agent and Faculty Member for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE)

The phrase “follow the money” entered the mainstream almost 50 years ago, when the film All the President’s Men depicted the real-life story of how two journalists pieced together a criminal conspiracy that eventually implicated President Richard Nixon, forcing his resignation. The key to that landmark case was tracing the path of illicit funds to and from Nixon’s re-election committee. Today, forensic accounting remains one of the most reliable tools in the investigation of political corruption.

Political corruption involves the use of public power for private benefit. It can occur at any scale. Corruption cases may involve bribery, extortion, embezzlement, fraud, and outright theft. It can also be more subtle, taking the form of favoritism, nepotism, and patronage. Some political corruption cases are so well obscured that they exist on the cusp of legality. But these are not victimless crimes.

Political corruption undermines the integrity of government and government services; often, those who suffer the most under corruption are the ones who already have the least.

Read on to learn more about how investigators and forensic accountants investigate political corruption and contribute to its prevention.

Meet the Expert: Michael “Bret” Hood, CFE, MBA

After serving 25 years as a Special Agent in the FBI, Michael “Bret” Hood became the director of 21st Century Learning & Consulting, LLC upon his retirement in 2016. Hood serves as an adjunct professor of corporate governance, ethics, and forensic accounting for the University of Virginia and a faculty member for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE). He is also a board member for the School of Accounting at Southern Illinois University.

While working as a leadership and ethics instructor at the FBI National Academy, Hood received two FBI Director Awards for Leadership Development & Leadership Innovation for his work on the FBI’s executive leadership development program. Since his retirement, he has keynoted and provided leadership, ethics, and anti-fraud instruction for Fortune 500 companies, non-profit entities, and governmental organizations. In 2020, Hood was awarded the ACFE’s James R. Baker Speaker of the Year award, and in 2021, he was recognized as the Florida Institute of CPAs Discussion Leader of the Year.

The Landscape of Political Corruption Today

Consider the competition for a lucrative oil or mining contract in a developing nation: the process of awarding the contract to one of several bidding entities may have a different level of oversight than it would in the United States. Money for favors, or threats of force, may influence the outcome and corrupt the process. But the parties involved are not limited to the hypothetical developing nation: today, the competition for contracts is multinational, and cases of corruption are multijurisdictional.

“Most business used to be conducted locally, but with the internet, international commerce, and just-in-time supply chains, the whole world is connected,” Hood says. “With these global connections, you’re going to see corruption increase.”

Today’s political corruption cases are as international as the world’s banking system. That can present some jurisdictional challenges but also open the window for more effective enforcement. One of the largest and most recent political corruption cases was the 1MDB (1Malaysia Development Berhad) scandal, which involved the misappropriation of billions of dollars and implicated several high-ranking political officials, including former Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak. The case was investigated and prosecuted not only by Malaysian authorities but by the United States Department of Justice (DOJ), through the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), as a significant portion of the funds were laundered through the American financial system.

“There have been a lot of prosecutions involving the FCPA, and many of the targets have been international companies,” Hood says.

But not all cases of political corruption originate outside the borders of the US. In 2023, both the Supreme Court and the Mayor of New York were probed for political corruption. While probes are not indicative of guilt, they are demonstrative of how investigators, and forensic accountants, play a prominent role in both fighting and preventing political corruption within a broader system of checks and balances.

How Investigators & Forensic Accountants Fight Political Corruption

“Typically, political corruption cases don’t walk in through the front door,” Hood says. “You hear things, you look at things, and you have to cultivate all these relationships to get people to talk. As you start to unravel a corruption case, you usually try to get an insider, someone who either was or is in the organization. Getting them to talk takes a good personality, strong interviewing skills, the ability to listen, and patience.”

The first murmurs of a political corruption case are often found in financial anomalies. Combined with anonymous tips and insider sources, investigators begin stitching together transactions that tell a broader story. The records of those transactions are a trail of breadcrumbs for investigation; they’re also critical evidence for future legal proceedings. And, in some cases, they can assist in the recovery of misappropriated assets.

Investigating and prosecuting cases of political corruption can act as a strong deterrent for other potential bad actors. But forensic accountants or investigators operating in a consultative capacity can also take proactive preventative steps against possible political corruption. Particularly in organizations dealing with campaign financing or government contracts, introducing systems of risk assessment, due diligence, process oversight, and staff training can reduce the frequency of illicit acts (EY 2013).

Challenges and Opportunities in Investigating Political Corruption

Political corruption cases are some of the most difficult cases to investigate and prosecute, taking place in politically charged environments that are prone to bias and subjectivity. Given these cases’ implications on power, there may be pressure on an investigator or forensic accountant to either find or not find a particular piece of evidence. There will almost certainly be pressure on witnesses and co-conspirators to obstruct the path of justice, too. These factors all contribute to a non-cooperative environment that requires extra effort.

“The standard in a criminal trial is beyond a reasonable doubt, but when you get a suspect with some notoriety, who will be in the press as you investigate or charge them, then you know everyone’s going to be focusing on your case,” Hood says. “You end up needing possibly more than beyond a reasonable doubt because you’re going to be second-guessed. You’re going to have the whole world looking at your case.”

Political corruption cases are made even more complex by the fact that many forms of financial crime are, at a certain level of sophistication, almost legal: they involve complex financial structures, shell companies, and tax loopholes. In all that legal gray area, illicit actors have a lot of room to maneuver, while investigators often need to prove definitively that a quid pro quo occurred, and intent can be tricky to prove.

In some ways, however, political corruption is easier to track and investigate than ever before. The proliferation of a digital financial system has meant that practically no transaction of a certain size goes without a receipt. When people won’t talk, money does. Even the cryptographically secure world of blockchain, with its ties to illicit finance, comes with a publicly available ledger of every transaction that occurs upon it. Sifting through those transactions, especially on more privacy-minded blockchains, can seem like an impossible task—but not to forensic accountants, who are integral to preventing and investigating cases of political corruption.

“Any case you work—whether you work in the private or public sector—the one question everyone wants the answer to is what happened to the money?” Hood says. “Whether you work in fraud or corruption, you want to know how they got the money, what they did with it, and whether there’s any left.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Big Employers in Forensics: Environmental Protection Agency

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesBig Employers in Forensics: Environmental Protection Agency

Forensics has a home with the EPA. We’re prosecuting more and more cases every year, and forensics is a big part of those cases.”

Jeffrey Foster, Assistant Special Agent in Charge (ASAC), Forensics and Response Section of CID at EPA

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is a federal agency tasked with protecting human health and the environment. To accomplish that mission, it performs a variety of functions, one of which is the enforcement of environmental regulations and the investigation of potential violations. The cases that the EPA investigates can have wide-reaching effects: they’ve helped enforce standards around clean air, clean water, and the ways hazardous chemicals are handled.

Practically every modern investigation includes some element of forensics, and that holds true at EPA as well. Both digital forensics and forensic science are essential to investigating violations of environmental regulations. But EPA’s uniquely green mission distinguishes it from some of the more popular (and more televised) three-letter agencies, and its forensics experts possess a potent mix of intelligence, passion, and idealism.

Formed in 1970, the mission of EPA is as important as ever. Climate change represents an existential threat to humanity. For the last seven years, American concern about the environment has grown steadily. For those who work for EPA, protecting the environment, and the people in it, is their top priority.

Read on to learn more about how EPA uses forensics to achieve its mission.

How EPA Uses Forensics

Forensics at EPA is housed within the Office of Criminal Enforcement Forensics and Training (OCEFT). Underneath that umbrella, forensics work related to the natural sciences is done by the National Enforcement Investigations Center (NEIC), which is split into three branches:

Field activities (which involves gathering and sampling evidence in the field)
The forensics laboratory (where analysis of samples is performed)
Specialized expertise (which provides specific and expert consultation in complex cases)

But forensic science is often applied differently at EPA than at many other federal agencies.

“At NEIC, we’re like the crime scene investigators (CSI) for the investigating agents,” says Linda TeKrony, Section Supervisor of Staff for the Field Branch of the NEIC at EPA. “We don’t do fingerprints. We don’t do blood splatter. We don’t do that traditional type of forensics. But we do collect scientific evidence that is central to the agents making their case, whether it’s determining if something’s a hazardous waste, or if an emission happened over a permit limit, whether that was discharged to water or air.”

Digital forensics is conducted through the forensics and response section of the Criminal Investigations Division (CID) at EPA, which includes the National Computer Forensics Lab (NCFL).

“From the digital forensics aspect, we focus on computers, computer servers, cell phones, and other data-containing devices,” says Jeffrey Foster, Assistant Special Agent in Charge (ASAC) for the Forensics and Response Section of CID at EPA. “These are becoming more prevalent as businesses move from a paper world to a cyber world. We see in our criminal investigations more information and evidence being collected in the form of digital data, as opposed to paper documents like in the past.”

What Makes Forensics Unique at EPA

EPA’s mission is to protect human health and the environment, and the type of cases it investigates are impactful and wide-ranging. During the Deepwater Horizon Incident, which is considered the largest marine oil spill in history, EPA used forensics to ascertain that sampled oil had indeed come from Deepwater Horizon, and not previous spills. Such work is crucial for determining responsibility, which dissuades other forms of corporate misbehavior.

“The regulations are out there,” TeKrony says. “Our job is to keep people in compliance, because the regulations protect the environment. People will either comply or they won’t. But if they don’t, they shouldn’t get away with it.”

At EPA’s NEIC, a typical day for a forensics expert might mean talking to investigating agents about their cases and the problems they’re seeing. It can also include making plans to go into the field, writing health and safety plans, coordinating with agents for search warrants, and packing up equipment. Some forensics is performed on-site, and some is taken back to the lab for further analysis, where experts look for evidence of hazardous waste, water pollutants, and air pollutants.

“We have a toxicologist who works closely with the case team, explaining what certain chemicals do to people and the environment,” TeKrony says. “We also have a statistician on staff who helps us develop our sampling protocols. Because if you’ve got a case where you have thousands of containers of potential hazardous waste, there’s no way you can sample thousands of containers. And so the statistician helps us develop a statistical sampling protocol to minimize the number of samples, but also maximize what we can say about them.”

In digital forensics, the responsibilities aren’t as split between teams and branches. It’s common for one of the digital forensics experts at CID to go out into the field, collect evidence, and then return to the lab to process data and perform the analysis themselves, often seeing a case out from start to finish. Specializations exist in digital forensics, but most of EPA’s digital forensics team is certified similarly, with rapid and ongoing education required to match new niche areas of tech and data.

“Really, no two days are the same, but that’s one thing that makes forensics interesting,” Foster says. “Every case is a little different, and as time goes on, the tools we use are different and the methods we’re using are different. The process of forensics is an evolving art.”

What EPA Looks for in Forensics Experts

For the NEIC, EPA is looking for forensics experts with degrees in the natural sciences or in engineering. While significant training occurs at NEIC before a new hire goes out into the field, that foundational science or engineering background is crucial. For digital forensics, however, the criteria are different: everyone who works in digital forensics at CID is a criminal investigator first.

“I have people in my staff with a vast array of backgrounds,” Foster says. “I have people that have a chemistry background and have been with EPA their whole career. And then there are other people who came up in another federal agency and then came over to the EPA to do forensics. But the thing that we all have in common is that we’re all criminal investigators.”

No matter one’s academic background, working in forensics at EPA requires certain soft skills. TeKrony highlights the importance of learning from one’s mistakes and working as part of a team. Foster points to integrity and persistence as hallmarks of his ideal digital forensics expert. But both emphasize allegiance to EPA’s mission as the most important characteristic of any new hire.

“A sense of mission is central to why people work for EPA,” TeKrony says. “Protecting human health and the environment is a core thing. When you’re out in the field, and you’re at a site, and you see the houses right next to where you are, or you see kids playing in the water, you realize that your work impacts those people that live there day to day. It’s a very strong mission. It’s why I work here, and it’s why I’ve worked here for so long.”

Positions for forensics experts at EPA are extremely competitive. But there are ways for aspiring forensics experts to put themselves on a path towards attaining one. It starts with setting up a profile at USAJobs.gov, and entering keywords that will alert you when relevant jobs become available. While they wait for their dream job, potential candidates can pursue experience in environmental justice, forensic science, and criminal investigations through adjacent avenues: state environmental departments, consultancies, or nonprofits and NGOs.

It requires patience, dedication, and a little kismet, but those who persist will be rewarded with a workplace of like-minded colleagues who share their passion for protecting human health and the environment.

“EPA is a great organization to work for,” Foster says. “It’s made up of people that really have their heart in it. For me, that’s what makes this job the greatest.”

The Future of Forensics at EPA

Forensics will continue to play a critical role in the EPA’s investigation of regulatory violations. Environmental regulations are constantly evolving, and they tend to be steeped in the complexities of their underlying science. As those regulations adapt to industrial and commercial trends, forensic experts must also adapt. TeKrony points to the example of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): when they became a major focus of regulatory action, EPA had to research new equipment and new methods to collect and analyze HFC evidence. But the technology used to analyze the environment is evolving quickly, too.

“In a lot of areas, the tech is advancing so quickly,” TeKrony says. “We’re looking at remote sensing: installing a sampler and being able to check it remotely. Or driving a van around that can sample the ambient air and tell you instantaneously what’s in it. As technology advances, there will be lots of opportunities for our program to advance what we do and to make it even more efficient for the agents as they’re investigating.”

In digital forensics, the rate of change is even more accelerated. There are new forms of hardware and software, both from which to collect data, and with which to analyze extracted data, practically every day. Digital forensics experts have to be engaged in a gameful state of constant learning.

“Forensics has a home with the EPA,” Foster says. “We’re prosecuting more and more cases every year, and forensics is a big part of those cases. For the future, for us in the digital forensic world, it’s a matter of staying on top of technology, and staying on top of what’s available to help us get through all this information that we gather and build into strong cases for prosecution.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Forensic AI: Using AI & Automation in Fraud Investigation

Home Forensic Education Blog Follow the MoneyForensic AI: Using AI & Automation in Fraud Investigation

As fraudsters use AI more for their own ends, investigators must keep up with how to counteract it.”

Laura Harris, CFE, Research Specialist for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE)

Regarding fraud investigation, there are a couple of new deputies in town. Generative AI in the vein of ChatGPT can help identify and investigate sophisticated financial crimes, while ML-powered automation can improve detection and prevent reoccurrence. These new capabilities are particularly important in an era where every company is a de facto software company, with data, intellectual property, and financial assets that must be protected. But they’re sidekicks, not sheriffs. The human touch remains essential.

AI-powered tools require fraud examiners to nurture new skills; they also require careful guidance and unique considerations. Chatbots running on generative AI can be viewed as supercharged search engines: modest-looking and inert on their own but revolutionary if used correctly. Unfortunately, fraudsters have access to many of the same tools.

Read on to learn more about how AI and automation are used in fraud investigation.

The Benefits of AI & Automation in Fraud Investigation

“With a specified purpose, AI can help with processes that can save the user time and energy,” says Laura Harris, CFE, a research specialist for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE).

AI is best at sifting through large swathes of data. It can pull patterns and signals from noisy and unstructured data across various formats, flagging them to investigators for follow-up. This is increasingly valuable as the data terrain of investigations continues to grow: there’s more and more data to look at and interpret. The needle is getting buried in bigger and bigger haystacks.

“Imagine a transaction for a payment that is more than a designated threshold,” Harris says. “The data automatically goes into the company’s computer system. A human can go searching for it and methodically extract all the information manually. Or, AI could be used to find data such as time, geographic location, and the IP address of that transaction to connect additional elements that might indicate a pattern of fraud.”

AI can also help reduce unintentional bias in investigations. Confirmation bias is a real issue when so much extraneous information is available: an investigator might find evidence to support several different conclusions, potentially leading an investigation astray. Humans are susceptible to following their own intuition and past experience, which may not always be reflected in the objective data—and that has its own pluses and minuses—but AI can act as a counterbalance, reinforcing an analytics-driven investigation.

Perhaps the most valuable application of AI and ML-powered tools for companies and organizations is in fraud prevention, which is distinct from but related to fraud investigation. As automated services, these tools can run in the background, in sentry mode, adding a layer of vigilance that human investigators can’t. As data continues to churn through an organization, AI and ML can constantly evaluate risks and flag areas of potential fraud. Human investigators can also audit that ongoing analysis should an active investigation begin.

The Challenges of Using AI & Automation in Investigations

“AI assistance must be thoughtfully considered,” Harris says. “If you say, ‘Go find fraud,’ you must define what fraud is and isn’t. We even have a hard time teaching this to people. Because sometimes what looks normal isn’t actually normal, and what looks questionable might have a good reason why it’s occurring. AI cannot just be a plug-in solution. It will require more work on the front and back end.”

AIs are flawed. The information they provide may be well-worded but not always accurate. Their understanding of nuance is superficial. And, despite their perceived objectivity, they, too, can be biased: biased training data or misleading prompts can quickly send them astray. Novices may be awed by the initial results, but human investigators would be best served by viewing new AI tools as flatfooted assistant deputies: ambitious but subordinate, new to the field, with claims that need to be verified before taken as fact.

“An AI does not have the nuances that people do,” Harris says. “Those nuances can help or hurt an investigation and must be respected.”

As investigators gain more experience working with AI, they’ll develop a more effective working rhythm. However, unique considerations will remain around privacy and liability. On one hand, privacy laws can limit data available for an investigation; on the other, questions typed into a public server are not privacy-protected, and investigators must be careful to conduct their investigations securely.

Different regulations between different countries can complicate matters further. Legal liability, too, is murky: who is responsible for the actions of an AI that’s responsible for, or complicit in, an act of fraud?

The Future of AI & Automation in Investigations

Shifting to AI and automation requires some human investigators to update their mental software. But the future where AI and automation are a regular part of fraud investigations is not distant: in some ways, it’s already here. AI literacy could soon become as valuable as typing, email, internet search, and OSINT proficiency. New and aspiring fraud examiners would benefit from knowing how AI tools work, what logic undergirds them, and what tradeoffs they include.

“Understanding data analytics and data management will enable people to verify the work of the AI, which is not necessarily going to give you the output you think,” Harris says. “Knowing what AI can and cannot do, and how it does it, will help people better understand the dynamics at play.”

Unfortunately, the bad guys have access to the same tools as the good guys do. Already, AI is being used in the commission of fraud and crime. Spear-phishing attacks are getting more sophisticated. New malware strains are proliferating. Scripting of malicious code takes only a few clicks. Harris points out that fraudsters have an unfair advantage, too: they may only need a single missing piece that AI can offer to complete their objective, while investigators need to teach, train, and verify the use of AI tools. Keeping pace requires vigilance.

“As fraudsters use AI more for their own ends, investigators must keep up with how to counteract it,” Harris says. “Preventing fraud is always better than detecting it, but both need the appropriate amount of attention. I see a future where people become more interested and involved in AI and investigation, but without letting the AI do all the work. It is a tool, not a miracle worker.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Top Employers in Forensics: What’s it Like to Work at ATF?

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesTop Employers in Forensics: What’s it Like to Work at ATF?

Forensic science is extremely important at ATF. It plays a critical role any time there’s physical evidence, from the simplest to the most complex case.”

Greg Czarnopys, Deputy Assistant Director for the Office of Science and Technology/Forensic Services at ATF

The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) is far more than the sum of its parts. A domestic law enforcement agency with over 5,000 employees, it has a long history of forensic excellence. ATF’s first laboratory traces back to 1886 when two scientists convened in the attic of a US Treasury building. Today, the main hub of ATF’s forensic work occurs at the National Laboratory Center in Beltsville, Maryland, including the Fire Research Laboratory, National Firearms Examiner Academy, and one of ATF’s two forensic science laboratories.

ATF’s eponymous mandate makes for a line of work that teems with forensic evidence. ATF employs forensic auditors, biologists, chemists, engineers, firearm and tool mark examiners, latent fingerprint examiners, questioned document examiners, and trace evidence examiners to work collaboratively in the pursuit of justice. And, in addition to providing accurate and authoritative scientific analysis, they’re conducting groundbreaking research and expanding the limits of what’s possible in forensic science.

To learn more about working in forensics at ATF, read on.

The Evolution of Forensic Science at ATF

Forensic science at ATF has changed significantly since the attic days of 1886. Today’s ATF laboratories are accredited through ISO standard 17025 and meet the requirements of the FBI Quality Assurance Standards for Forensic DNA Testing Laboratories. Old methodologies, like thin-layer chromatography, have fallen out of favor for mass spectrometry. ATF’s forensic professionals are working with increased precision in the most sophisticated forensics techniques. They’re also forging new pathways in the discipline as a whole.

“One thing that is relatively new for ATF is DNA evidence,” says Greg Czarnopys, Deputy assistant director for the Office of Science and Technology/Forensic Services at ATF. “We only started that in 2007. The technique had been around for some time, but it was not sensitive enough for the types of samples we see at ATF until 2007. We also lacked the capability in-house, so we built that up. We’re now the leaders in low-level touch DNA.”

In forensics, the work one does is dictated by the evidence samples they get. At the ATF, that means primarily the components of explosive devices and firearms, and often in fragmented or limited quantities. As a result, DNA evidence may be minimal. Getting DNA off a firearm is relatively straightforward, but off a fired cartridge case is very different: cartridge cases are typically made of brass that contains copper, making them inherently antimicrobial, degrading DNA when mixed with water.

“We spent about five years of research, working with different universities, on a technique to get DNA off of fired cartridge cases,” Czarnopys says. “We finalized that technique in 2019. Now, 66 percent of the time, in an investigation where the only evidence is a fired cartridge case, we’re getting DNA profiles. It used to be zero percent. That’s a huge change in the industry.”

Working in Forensics at ATF

Forensics professionals at ATF are generally based in one of the ATF’s laboratories, but they will spend time in the field as well. Fire engineers work closely with the Bureau’s certified fire investigators to analyze the scene; forensic chemists are often called to major explosives investigations. Any forensic employee at ATF can be called into the field to help process a crime scene or a search warrant. They also may be called upon as part of the Bureau’s National Response Team (NRT) for large and emergent cases.

“Forensic science is extremely important at ATF,” says Czarnopys. “It plays a critical role any time there’s physical evidence, from the simplest to the most complex case.”

A typical day at ATF will be dictated by a forensic examiner’s specialty. But there are some commonalities across disciplines. In fact, forensic examiners at ATF work collaboratively. Czarnopys highlights the importance of the lead examiner’s role: they’ll open a new case and determine the proper order of examination. An explosives case may require latent print examination, DNA examination, and toolmarks examination. Everyone has to work as a team to get the best results.

“A young forensics professional really needs to be curious and willing to seek the unbiased truth about the evidence,” Czarnopys says. “But they also have to be able to think beyond just science. They have to be articulate in how they communicate to different education levels.”

The collaboration extends beyond the forensic sciences to special agents, administrators, attorneys, judges, and juries. Outside of lab and fieldwork, forensics professionals at ATF regularly provide instruction to ATF special agents and other local, state, and federal law enforcement personnel, and they may teach courses at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Brunswick, Georgia or the National Center for Explosives Training and Research in Redstone Arsenal, Alabama.

“You have to be able to teach non-scientists science,” Czarnopys says. “You have to communicate in ways that people can understand. But when you do, and you see the light bulb go off, it’s so rewarding.”

There’s always pressure to get things done in a lab. TV shows have trained the layman to expect definitive forensic results in the span of a single commercial break, setting unrealistic standards. While there is a time for high throughput in some laboratory applications, ATF prides itself on not turning its laboratories into assembly lines. Instead, management prioritizes the ability of scientists to build up their expertise and identify and pursue solutions to problems they are encountering. That approach led to the breakthroughs in capturing DNA evidence off cartridge casings, and it’s an approach that Czarnopys is hopeful ATF can carry forward.

The Future of Forensic Science at ATF

Heading into the future, the ATF aims to not only keep pace with advancements in forensic science but help push the boundaries of what’s possible in the field. The groundbreaking research done with partner universities on retrieving DNA samples from gun cartridge casings was just the beginning, and it’s helped shape a critical model for the future.

ATF has been funded for a new laboratory, the Forensic Crime Gun Intelligence Laboratory, which is expected to begin construction in Wichita, Kansas later this year. ATF hopes to nearly double their current forensic workforce once the new lab is fully operational.

The first of its kind, the lab will work with Wichita State University, focusing exclusively on firearms and firearms-related incidents and collaborating deeply with the university’s research capabilities.

“Science is constantly evolving, and you never know what’s next,” Czarnopys says. “But I think the future is really bright for ATF and for forensics.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Forensics, Fentanyl & New Drug Detection

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsForensics, Fentanyl & New Drug Detection

Identifying and analyzing new drugs of abuse is one of the biggest challenges facing the world today. And it’s not necessarily just drugs. It’s also chemicals. Xylazine wasn’t on the radar as a drug of abuse. It’s been around for decades and is only now being used in that way. How do we figure out what’s going on, and what the next thing might be? How do you find something you don’t know to look for?”

Ed Sisco, PhD, Research Chemist, Surface and Trace Chemical Analysis Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

What you don’t know can kill you. Consider America’s drug overdose epidemic, which according to CDC estimates, claimed over 100,000 lives in 2022. Many of those deaths resulted from fentanyl, a synthetic opioid that often masquerades as heroin, but can be up to 50 times stronger in its effects.

Analogs of fentanyl distort the math further, with some ranging up to 5,000 times stronger than the substance they purport to be. Forced into the illegal marketplace, without regulation, street users may not know what they’re consuming until it’s too late; forensic examiners and law enforcement agencies may miss crucial evidence.

Forensic chemists, toxicologists, laboratory professionals, and law enforcement officers all face significant challenges in detecting, identifying, and analyzing new and dangerous substances. This is an urgent situation. A new, non-opioid drug, xylazine, is now being included alongside fentanyl and its analogs: it is resistant to opioid overdose medications like Narcan, has a wide range of deleterious side effects, and often hides “underneath” fentanyl and other opioids during traditional forensic analysis. Xylazine, also known as tranq, almost certainly contributes to an increase in overdose deaths, though the full extent remains unknown, largely because of its newness.

The traditional forensic laboratory is not set up to detect, identify, and analyze new and dangerous drugs and chemicals. But more are coming. Collaborative solutions are needed. To learn how the public health, natural science, and forensic science communities are fighting back, read on.

Meet the Expert: Edward Sisco, PhD

Dr. Ed Sisco is a research chemist within the Surface and Trace Chemical Analysis Group at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The Group is one of eight groups within the Materials Measurement Science Division and supports the NIST mission in Safety, Security, and Forensics with projects ranging from developing and standardizing contraband screening technologies to nuclear particle analysis and forensics. They perform basic research in developing new technologies for detecting trace particles and thin films on surfaces, sampling, instrument optimization, and development of standards.

Dr. Sisco’s research has focused on mass spectrometry systems for forensics, homeland security, and other applications. He has extensive knowledge in traditional mass spectrometry systems (GC-MS, LC-MS, IC-MS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), and ambient ionization mass spectrometry (AI-MS) such as DART-MS, DESI-MS, DEFFI-MS, etc. His current research focuses on addressing measurement challenges in forensic chemistry, providing fundamental measurements to address the opioid epidemic, and increasing awareness of the advantages of implementing AI-MS in screening and laboratory environments.

The Challenges of New Drug Detection

“Identifying and analyzing new drugs of abuse is one of the biggest challenges facing the world today,” Dr. Sisco says. “And it’s not necessarily just drugs. It’s also chemicals. Xylazine wasn’t on the radar as a drug of abuse. It’s been around for decades and is only now being used in that way. How do we figure out what’s going on, and what the next thing might be? How do you find something you don’t know to look for?”

The challenges in new drug detection are myriad. Many potent new drugs can be present in only trace amounts, making them hard to detect, and able to ‘hide behind’ their other, more well-known, counterparts. Their structure, too, may be difficult to identify with traditional lab techniques, methods, and technologies. Analogs, which differ slightly in their molecular makeup, can fool the most basic detection processes. These challenges are magnified by a general lack of uniform reporting requirements and a significant backlog of cases in the average drug chemistry laboratory.

“On the toxicology side, the biggest need is in technology,” Dr. Sisco says. “Right now, the technology that is often used is very narrow-focused. Many labs are only looking at very specific drugs or panels of drugs.”

The standard tech in most labs can’t do exploratory analysis, where scientists would be able to look for these new drugs. Upgrading requires new funding and additional expertise. Especially in forensic settings, where findings are incorporated into casework, procedural barriers make major changes difficult.

But some scientists are beginning to rethink the role of the forensic laboratory, and its capacity for the type of independent, exploratory analysis that could exist outside the strict rules set out for casework, and aid in new drug detection.

The Rapid Drug Analysis and Research (RaDAR) Program

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been working towards a collaborative solution with its Rapid Drug Analysis and Research (RaDAR) Program. Started in October 2021, in partnership with the Maryland Department of Health and the Maryland State Police, the program pulls in samples from a range of different sites (needle exchanges on the public health side, for example, and crime scenes on the law enforcement side) and performs a thorough analysis. NIST uses an instrument that can detect almost all present substances on a sample in a matter of seconds, through a technique known as direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry (DART-MS), and then sends the results back to the submitting agencies.

“By October of last year, we’d expanded to all needle exchange sites in Maryland, and multiple law enforcement task forces, giving us coverage of the entire state,” Dr. Sisco says. “Since then, we’ve brought on four additional states, and we’re expanding into at least another four or five states in the coming months.”

Most of the buy-in so far has come through state departments of health, where there appears to be more interest in this type of exploratory analysis and fewer burdens of jurisdiction and procedure. But law enforcement agencies are coming into the program, too.

“There is some red tape in terms of putting agreements in place,” Dr. Sisco says. “The two big things are data sharing—ensuring that we provide data in a safe and secure manner—and then ensuring the anonymity of the people donating the samples. We don’t want to collect any personally identifiable information. Everything we do is blinded: we know nothing about the people who are submitting the samples, and we make sure we keep it that way.”

Pulling in samples from diverse settings allows scientists to collaborate around new drug detection and map the spread of new and dangerous analogs. It saves lives: in public health settings, this information can inform users about potentially lethal drugs on the street and in their community; in law enforcement agencies, officials can better know what to look for. However, the expansion of the program has its limits. NIST is a research and development laboratory, and it’s not equipped to handle tens of thousands of samples coming in every day.

“Our goal is to establish this new type of measurement, and new capability, then work with the states and cities to transfer that into their laboratories, so they can do it on their own,” Dr. Sisco says. “We’re starting to do that now with a few states, where they’re adopting the technologies and methods that we’ve developed, to bring it in-house eventually. That would allow us to also standardize the data and the reporting, so that information is comparable across states, across regions, across the country.”

The Future of New Drug Detection

Scientists at NIST are also working on the safe handling of potentially hazardous substances. Carfentanil, an analog of fentanyl, can be 100 times more potent than fentanyl, and thus 5,000 times more potent than heroin, making it potentially lethal if accidentally inhaled. Simply the possibility of its presence makes investigation and analysis dangerous: first responders and scientists have to assume the worst, and take precautions. Scientists at NIST are participating in the development of new forms of training to assist with this.

“We use videos, lasers, and other types of visualization tools to help us look at how powder moves in an environment,” Sisco says. “Then we mock up either people manufacturing narcotics, or opening evidence, and make training videos that help law enforcement and forensic scientists ensure that what they’re doing is safe, to prevent exposure to these new drugs that might be coming out.”

Today, the scourges are fentanyl and xylazine, but in three to six months, it could be something else. Scientists are focusing on not just fighting the last war, but also the next one. That means increasing their findings’ objectivity and accuracy so they can make definitive claims when analyzing a sample. It also means spreading best practices and capabilities to more labs.

“As we get more of these new technologies, new algorithms, and standardizing data practices in place, we can get to the point where we can detect these new drugs much quicker,” Sisco says. “That way we’re not waiting weeks or months to know there’s something new on the street. Instead, we can find it in days.”

The future could see more calls to move the laboratory into the field in different capacities. Laboratory-type setups in needle exchanges would benefit users and health departments; at the borders, they could assist in drug detection and enforcement.

“We’re probably five to ten years from really solid technologies that provide the kind of comprehensive analysis and standardized reporting needed out in the field,” Dr. Sisco says. “But I think we’re going to get there.”

For now, the main focus is on doing exploratory analyses in the lab. The technology for it exists right now: it’s already being used to find new medicines or methods of diagnosis. Bringing that technology into the forensics space is just a matter of funding, will, and expertise. It can help close the gap between introduction and detection when the next dangerous substance first comes on the street. The narrower the gap, the more lives that can be saved.

“This is a problem that’s not going away any time soon, unfortunately,” Dr. Sisco says.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Social Engineering: How Hackers Trick People Into Giving Up Secure Data

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsSocial Engineering: How Hackers Trick People Into Giving Up Secure Data

Social engineering is the biggest blindspot in the cybersecurity industry.”

Joseph Carrigan, Senior Security Engineer and Outreach Coordinator, Johns Hopkins University Information Security Institute

Social engineering is the act of manipulating someone into giving up secure data. Unlike more technical types of cyber attacks, which target the zeroes and ones, social engineering’s methods can appear almost charmingly analog, but that makes them no less dangerous. Hackers using social engineering know that the most vulnerable element in any network is often the human being using it.

The late Kevin Mitnick, once known as the world’s most famous hacker, wrote about some of the more cinematic applications of social engineering in his 2002 book The Art of Deception. What many of his methods had in common was the clever use of publicly available information to subvert assumptions.

Over the last 20 years, social engineering has changed significantly—today it more closely resembles what’s known as spear-phishing—but still retains many of its core elements. And, despite enormous technological advances, the human aspect of cybersecurity remains of crucial importance.

Read on to learn more about social engineering: how hackers weaponize it, and how cybersecurity professionals protect against it.

Meet the Expert: Joseph Carrigan

Joseph Carrigan is the senior security engineer and outreach coordinator with Johns Hopkins University Information Security Institute. He is also the co-host of the Hacking Humans podcast and an expert commentator for The CyberWire. He earned his BS in computer and information science from The University of Maryland, University College and his MS in computer science from Capitol College.

Carrigan has been a software engineer for over 20 years and has worked in the security field for more than ten years focusing on usable security and security awareness. He has experience in various fields, including authentication systems, embedded systems, data migration, and network communication.

The Evolution of Social Engineering

“Generally, when we talk about endpoints in cybersecurity, we refer to the endpoint of a computer or a network,” Carrigan says. “But you have to consider that beyond every computer or network, there is a human, and that’s where a lot of the vulnerabilities lie.”

Carrigan relates a story about an organization hiring white hat hackers to do penetration testing on some sensitive backups stored within their facility. The hackers simply showed up at the organization’s front desk. They said they were from IT and needed to scan people’s access cards to ensure they were working. The employees believed them and complied with their requests. The hackers scanned the access cards and cloned them onto new cards, and, now with access to the entire facility, could easily lay hands on the sensitive backups. The total cost to perpetrate this pseudo-attack was little more than pocket change; the loss from it being successful would’ve been catastrophic.

“Social engineering is the biggest blindspot in the cybersecurity industry,” Carrigan says. “You can have the world’s best security posture from a hardware and software standpoint, and it won’t matter if a malicious actor can convince an employee on the inside to install malware.”

In the 90s, a startling percentage of employees would readily give up their usernames and passwords if asked over the phone by someone purporting to be from IT. Fortunately, the average awareness level has improved since then. Contemporary social engineering most often takes the form of spear-phishing: a targeted and personalized form of more generic phishing attempts. But the technologies and delivery methods are also much more sophisticated than they used to be.

“The biggest change most recently is the emergence of large language models (LLMs) that have made social engineering attacks much more effective,” Carrigan says.

LLMs like Chat GPT and its jailbroken counterparts have lowered the barrier of entry for many would-be cyberattackers. Social engineering attempts made via text now have the benefit of perfect grammar and persuasive style all at the click of a button, and they can be manufactured and delivered at scale. LLMs can even analyze a particular individual’s written style and mimic it with a high degree of accuracy.

“Before, you’d have all these red flags around grammar, punctuation, and syntax,” Carrigan says. “But LLMs really increase the effectiveness of the average spear-phishing email.”

How Cybersecurity Professionals Fight Social Engineering

Social engineering circumvents much of the high-tech defense modern cybersecurity professionals provide. Organizations facing modern cyber threats, including social engineering, need to adopt ground-level precautionary measures. Carrigan particularly points to sensitive areas like financial services or secure data, where specific policies and processes can be implemented to act as fences against social engineering.

“Particularly with organizations, the best form of protection is policy,” Carrigan says. “A policy says when someone transfers money, this is what needs to happen. It says when we change our banking details, this is what needs to happen. So there’s a process. It’s not just an email. Someone has to pick up a phone and make a call.”

Another major defense against social engineering is multi-factor authentication. Having it is always better than not having it, but some forms of multi-factor authentication are stronger than others. Carrigan prefers hardware keys that implement FIDO2 specifications, compared to time-based codes like Google Authenticator or Authy. Notably, Google employees must use a FIDO2-compliant token key called the Titan to access their Google Suite accounts. This multi-factor authentication method is as close as one can get to putting a physical lock on a digital asset.

“The FIDO2 hardware keys implement a challenge-response system that can’t really be intercepted, and can’t be man-in-the-middle’d,” Carrigan says.

Multi-factor authentication, combined with clear policies and processes around the movement of funds and secure information, can remove an organization from the most vulnerable list of targets for would-be social engineers. But no organization is infallible, and no network is perfectly secure.

Each form of protection also provides a possible entry point: social engineers could persuade someone to physically give up their FIDO2 key, for example. Furthermore, hackers can be complex and innovative in their forms of attack, especially as new technology unlocks new methods.

“It’s an arms race,” Carrigan says. “The bad guys are financially motivated, and they’re always going to be very creative.”

The Future of Social Engineering

Social engineering is here to stay. The good news is that the good guys’ defense is getting better. Spam email, once the scourge of internet users everywhere, is now close to solved. Best practices around multi-factor authentication are improving, and general awareness around phishing and spear-phishing is improving, too. Carrigan compares today’s moment to the advent of handwashing and disinfectant: small changes could have huge and lasting effects.

There’s still a long way to go. Cybersecurity professionals need to stay abreast of the latest attack vectors and best practices for defense. Organizations need strong and clearly defined cultures of security—not punitive ones, but open ones, where there’s a shared sense of ownership over the organization’s data, finances, and cybersecurity practices. Ultimately, social engineering is a human problem, and the solutions are also human.

“When you have a large organization full of tons of fallible people, mistakes are going to happen,” Carrigan says. “But you safeguard against that by having good policy, having good training, having good hardware, and having a good security culture in place.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

The Role of Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) in Investigations

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsThe Role of Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) in Investigations

“In OSINT, a very minimal amount of training can have a significant impact. There’s no barrier for entry. You just need time on your hands and interest in the subject. That’s really all it takes.”

Mason Wilder, CFE, Research Manager for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE)

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) is the collection and analysis of data gathered from public sources. Dating back to the 20th century, and once purely the domain of the military and intelligence communities, today’s internet-connected and data-driven world has brought OSINT into a wide array of investigations and firmly placed it in the mainstream.

As people’s lives have moved more online, investigations have gone increasingly online, too. Social media accounts can provide a snapshot of someone’s life, and often those snapshots can include critical clues. At its core, OSINT can be as simple as a Google search. But today’s OSINT operators know much more sophisticated, as well as much more elegant, methods of investigation.

OSINT is no longer a niche aspect of an investigation; many times it’s now the core. But new opportunities come with new challenges, and leveraging OSINT in an investigation requires a specific set of skills, as well as a firm understanding of the discipline’s strengths and weaknesses.

To learn more about the role of OSINT in modern investigations, read on.

Meet the Expert: Mason Wilder, CFE

Mason Wilder, CFE, is a research manager for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE). In this role, he manages the creation and updating of ACFE materials for continuing professional education, works on research initiatives such as the “Report to the Nations” and benchmarking reports, conducts trainings, writes for all ACFE publications, and responds to member and media requests.

The Evolution of OSINT in Investigations

“OSINT is critical to investigations today,” Wilder says. “I always recommend utilizing OSINT early and often in any kind of engagement, because there’s a wealth of information available through public sources that can benefit any and every type of investigation.”

One of the largest shifts for OSINT over the last decade has been driven by changes in social media. Wilder notes that few of those changes have made an OSINT investigator’s job easier. As popular social media sites change their policies and functionalities—particularly as it relates to privacy—OSINT investigators have had to adapt.

Graph searching, which refers to a type of URL manipulation, previously allowed savvy operators to view photos and status updates of users on Facebook without being connected to those users directly; changes to the platform’s underlying architecture have since closed the loop.

Twitter once geocoded every tweet automatically, providing the crucial dimension of location to a person’s activity; geocoding is now an opt-in-only feature. Third-party OSINT tools have struggled to keep up, and investigators have had to rely more on the native search functions of social media platforms.

“A more recent trend is a shift away from the big four or five social media platforms, and towards a fragmentation of people’s social media usage,” Wilder says. “That includes an increased adoption of secure messaging tools that are borderline social media—WhatsApp, Discord, Telegram—but not social media platforms in the way most of society thinks. In the last five years, we’ve seen more variation, and more platforms that are difficult to utilize in terms of OSINT.”

Tips and Tools for Using OSINT in Investigations

OSINT isn’t just the collection of publicly available information, but the analysis of it, too. Online, the difference between a clue and a red herring, or between fact and lie, is blurry. Some social media sites, like X, are only now starting to vet the truthfulness of what certain users post; others, like LinkedIn, have no requirements for data entered by a user into their profile.

“You can get a lot of information with OSINT, but there’s no guarantee that it’s accurate, comprehensive, or legitimate,” Wilder says. “You have to verify it.”

The world is teeming with data. Every OSINT investigation is faced with the problem of plenty. Filtering information out can be as important as bringing new information in, but a few tips and tools can make that process more efficient and effective. Wilder points to the power of Boolean searching, which leverages search operators such as quotation marks, parentheses, colons, and AND/OR descriptors to refine and filter search engine results.

“Going step by step and combining different search operators can be really useful,” Wilder says. “In just a couple of minutes, and with only a few searches, you can zero in from 50 million results to a couple thousand about exactly what you’re looking for.”

In some areas of OSINT, particularly those related to blockchain transactions, investigators do need third-party tools. While the majority of blockchains are transparent, with all transactions publicly available, their sheer number and complexity makes them difficult to read manually. If a suspect deliberately tries to cover their tracks, primitive interfaces like Etherscan will not be enough.

“Once cryptocurrency transactions reach a certain threshold of complexity and volume, it’s going to be incredibly tedious and convoluted to access with basic OSINT,” Wilder says. “Software solutions like Chainalysis, Elliptic, or TRM labs can simplify the process and streamline things for you.”

Even in non-cryptographic domains, many open-source resources exist to provide low-cost or no-cost help to OSINT investigators. One such resource is WhatsMyName, which allows someone to plug in a username and have it scan several hundred sites to find similar uses of that username. The app will then populate a list of hits that can be accessed in a single click. It’s an enormous timesaver, Wilder notes, and an example of a product built by and for the OSINT community.

“There’s a vibrant community of OSINT researchers constantly working on new tools and techniques and sharing that information,” Wilder says. “There’s constant innovation.”

The Future of OSINT

As life becomes more digitized, OSINT will only become more instrumental in investigations. The rise of digital assets and the continued fragmentation of presence across different media platforms will continue to present OSINT investigators with complex challenges, as will AI-generated content. The need to verify the veracity, or phoniness, of text, images, and videos will be very important. But the increasingly mainstream status of OSINT can help, and simple tools like reverse image searching should be a staple of any investigator’s practice.

“People will often reuse pictures from other contexts to claim that some situation is either happening or happened, when a simple reverse image search shows you that picture is actually from several years earlier, in a totally different situation,” Wilder says. “Where it will be interesting to see if OSINT meets the need is in identifying AI-generated media: images, video, audio. There are a few tools similar to reverse image searching that can look for manipulation, but it’s still relatively early.”

AI-generated media will continue to be a significant trend. But the use of ChatGPT and other large language models (LLMs) in OSINT investigations remains suspect. The data that most LLMs are trained on is not fully up to date, and the results they provide users with can be inaccurate, and sometimes result in what programmers call hallucinations. OSINT investigators will then spend more time verifying ChatGPT results than they would seeking out information through more traditional means, such as Boolean searching on a typical search engine.

“I’d caution people interested in OSINT against trying to outsource your searches to ChatGPT and other AI-powered chat platforms,” Wilder says. “In their current form, the information they put out is not at all reliable.”

The future may be uncertain, but OSINT’s place in it is not. As more data is shared online, more investigations will start and end online. OSINT investigators will continue to adapt to the widening technological landscape. This is a rapidly evolving field, but it’s also one that’s open to newcomers, and the learning curve isn’t as steep as it might appear.

“In OSINT, a very minimal amount of training can have a significant impact,” Wilder says. “There’s no barrier for entry. You just need time on your hands and interest in the subject. That’s really all it takes.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

How Psychology Can Help Prevent Mass Shootings

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesHow Psychology Can Help Prevent Mass Shootings

This is a really good space to do some good and build a career. You can do work that feels meaningful, where there are a lot of basic questions that still need to be asked. It’s a space that needs young voices.”

Mike Anestis, PhD, Executive Director of the New Jersey Gun Violence Research Center (GVRC)

We used to know them by heart. Columbine. Parkland. Sandy Hook. Pulse Nightclub. Paradise, Las Vegas. It’s a sign of the pervasiveness of mass shootings in America that one can no longer easily list the tragedies left streaked across the national psyche. The memories of people and places have been increasingly replaced with the data of numbers and percentages.

For the last three years, over 600 people have died annually from mass shootings in the US; approximately 49,000 die across the country every year from some form of gun violence; and the total number of victims experiencing trauma and loss related to these acts remain impossible to count.

Mass shootings leave psychological scars. They also call into question the psychological state of those who commit them. It’s natural to look to psychology, and psychologists, for answers. But the answers might differ from what we expect. Today’s gun violence researchers are charting a data-driven path to reduce the cruel statistics, taking a collaborative, compassionate, and apolitical approach to the woefully American problem of gun violence.

Read on to learn more about how psychology plays a role in preventing and postvention of mass shootings.

Meet the Expert: Michael Anestis, PhD

Dr. Mike Anestis is the executive director of the New Jersey Gun Violence Research Center (GVRC) and an associate professor of urban-global public health in the School of Public Health at Rutgers University. He received his bachelor’s degree from Yale University in 2002 and his PhD in psychology from Florida State in 2011.

Dr. Anestis currently serves on advisory boards for the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (AFSP) and the JED Foundation. In 2018, Dr. Anestis was the recipient of the Edwin Shneidman Award from the American Association of Suicidology (AAS), designating him as the scientist under age 40 and within ten years of having received their degree whose research has made the greatest impact on suicide prevention.

Addressing Common Misconceptions Related to Mass Shootings

The largest and most pervasive misconception remains the conflation of mass shootings and mental illness. Statistically, people who suffer from mental illness are more likely to be victims than perpetrators of any kind of gun violence. Focusing on mental illness distracts from more actionable and effective responses, like preventing people who wish to commit violence from accessing a firearm. (Tellingly, the public voices who blame mental illness for mass shootings rarely advocate for greater public funding of mental healthcare.)

“One of the biggest misconceptions is the notion that there’s nothing that can be done to prevent someone from gaining access to a firearm,” Dr. Anestis says. “The percentage of adolescents who are gaining access to their parents’ firearms to use in these tragedies is exceptionally high. Had those firearms been stored out of the home, or at least stored securely, that could’ve played a role in prevention.”

Various methods exist to reduce a potentially violent person’s access to firearms without simultaneously reducing all Americans’ access to firearms. One such method is the adoption of secure storage sites, some of which might be housed at local gun retailers.

Suppose a firearm-owner feels that they, or a member of their family or household, might be in a level of elevated stress or heightened emotion. In that case, they can store their firearms at a secured storage site, outside their own residence (ideally, with no questions asked).

“The idea is, if you want to lower the odds of mass shootings, you have to lower the ready access to firearms in a moment of distress,” Dr. Anestis says. “We don’t know where that distress lives. It’s essentially randomly distributed across the population. We have to look for the signals when they pop up.”

Another misconception around mass shootings is the perceived inefficiency of Extreme Risk Protection Orders (ERPOs), sometimes still unhelpfully referred to as red flag laws. ERPOs allow a state court to order the temporary removal of firearms from a person they believe may present a danger to others or themselves. ERPOs are relatively new: first introduced in California in 2014, they were adopted more broadly after the Parkland shootings in 2018. As of May 2023, 21 states and the District of Columbia have enacted ERPO laws. The data on ERPOs is still young, but it’s promising.

“One of the things I do like about this very imperfect form of policy—ERPOs—is that they aren’t based on a profile,” Dr. Anestis says. “They’re based on behaviors, on imminent risk shown by behaviors that you are a threat in the coming minutes, hours, or days to yourself or others. It’s based on what someone’s doing, not who someone is.”

The Role of Psychology in the Prevention and Postvention of Mass Shootings

Psychology and psychologists can play an important role in both the prevention and postvention of mass shootings. One way is through the formation and participation of threat assessment teams: convened through school forums, these teams can include law enforcement, administrators, psychologists, and other mental health professionals. Their goal is to take an evidence-based approach to identifying individuals who may pose a threat, and provide interventions before violence occurs.

But psychology’s primary role is not in predicting mass shootings or mass shooters. Profiling itself can be dangerous. While mass shooters often do share common behaviors in the lead up to their crimes—scouting the site of the shooting, making posts with references to their upcoming intentions, or even telling people outright what they plan to do—there is no single profile for mass shooters or any perpetrator of gun violence.

“Where people make mistakes is in the assumption that there is a particular profile,” Dr. Anestis says. “There’s a profile in behaviors, but not in personality, not in mental illness, and not in an individual’s personal story.”

Instead of being predictive, psychologists can pursue other preventive actions. They can help craft active shooter drills that mindfully train, rather than fearfully traumatize, students. If working in a clinical capacity, psychologists can take actions to restrict access to firearms for clients who demonstrate an imminent risk of violence. But just as important as prevention is postvention.

“There’s certainly room for psychology post-mass shooting, in terms of connecting the victims with the resources they need,” Dr. Anestis says. “And by victim, I don’t just mean the people who have been shot. I don’t even mean the family members. You’d be surprised by how far removed someone can be from these events and still have a traumatic response.”

Advancing Research that Reduces All Forms of Gun Violence

In 1997, a provision known as the Dickey Amendment was inserted into an omnibus spending bill for the US federal government. Lobbied for by the National Rifle Association (NRA), it prohibited the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from using funds allocated towards injury prevention in advocating for gun control.

As a result, gun violence research was hugely stymied: for the next two decades, the CDC avoided all gun violence research out of fear of being penalized. It wasn’t until fiscal year 2020 that the US federal budget included $25 million for the CDC to research gun-related deaths and injuries. Even that figure pales in comparison to the size and scope of the problem: $25 million is less than 2 percent of the federal funding for sepsis research.

“Mass shootings are one of many versions of gun violence that are having traumatizing, long-lasting, intergenerational effects on America,” Dr. Anestis says. “Our inability to take reasonable action to address that is a moral failure that generations from now we’ll look back upon with shame. There’s no doubt about it.”

While the funding for gun violence research is still low, it’s growing. At the New Jersey Gun Violence Research Center (GVRC), Dr. Anestis and his colleagues split the shop into two sides: one focuses on funding and conducting gun violence research; the other disseminates the science of gun violence prevention in a way that’s not hidden behind paywalls, journals, or jargon.

“We’re not an advocacy group,” Dr. Anestis says. “We’re not here to campaign for policies. We’re here to study what does and doesn’t prevent different forms of gun violence, and what we can do to help the victims of gun violence.”

Dr. Anestis hopes that the GVRC will help recruit and train the next generation of gun violence researchers, one that’s engaged with collaborative, data-driven approaches. As those researchers proliferate, they’ll also play a key role in dispelling some of the common misconceptions around mass shootings, the most telling of which is that despite all the horror and grief mass shootings cause, they still represent little more than 1 percent of all deaths from gun violence in the US.

“This is a really good space to do some good and build a career,” Dr. Anestis says. “You can do work that feels meaningful, where there are a lot of basic questions that still need to be asked. It’s a space that needs young voices. It’s a space that needs people willing to engage with folks who look through different lenses than they do. Psychologists are a really good fit for that. It’s not easy, but most people don’t come into psychology looking for easy work.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

What to Know About Wrongful Convictions

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesWhat to Know About Wrongful Convictions

“There are a variety of ways to address the issues that lead to wrongful conviction. But at the core, the most fundamental fact of wrongful conviction is this is a complicated phenomenon, as both intentional and unintentional errors are contributing to it.”

Shi Yan, PhD, Assistant Professor at the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University (ASU)

The advent of DNA evidence in the late 1980s heralded a new era for overturning wrongful convictions. At the same time, it began to reveal just how widespread wrongful conviction has been in America. The National Registry of Exonerations (NRE) has recorded over 3,175 overturned wrongful convictions since 1989, and over 27,200 years of freedom have been lost for those who served sentences for crimes they did not commit. Those are only the cases of which we know.

The contributing factors to wrongful convictions are myriad, and it is as much a mistake to blame misconduct and negligence solely as it is to deny the problem altogether. But both forensics and criminal justice professionals can play a powerful role in reducing wrongful convictions and making a safer, more equitable system for all.

Read on to learn more about the causes of wrongful convictions and how they might be mitigated in the future.

Meet the Expert: Shi Yan, PhD

Dr. Shi Yan is an assistant professor at the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University (ASU). He is also an affiliated faculty of the Law and Behavioral Science group at ASU. Dr. Yan received both his MA and his PhD. in criminal justice from the University at Albany, SUNY.

Dr. Yan’s research pursues a better understanding of the contemporary American court system, with two focal areas. He studies the correlates of guilty pleas, including false guilty pleas, with both experiments and analyses of quantitative court record data. He also studies how prior criminal records and other factors shape the image of risk in the criminal justice context, and how the perceived risk further relates to case outcomes. His studies have been published in leading academic journals in criminology, law and psychology, and other disciplines. His research has received funding from the National Institute of Justice, the National Science Foundation, and state and local agencies in Arizona.

Understanding the Causes of Wrongful Conviction

In the US, convictions occur in two main ways: a defendant can be found guilty by trial or waive their right to trial and plead guilty. Historically, most of the public’s attention has focused on wrongful convictions stemming from trial convictions. But each category has its own share of wrongful convictions.

“Wrongful conviction at trial has a number of contributing factors,” Dr. Yan says. “Sometimes wrongful convictions are the result of intentional acts, such as false accusations or a key witness lying. Others may be related to errors people make unintentionally.”

A common cause of wrongful conviction at trial is eyewitness misidentification. That misidentification could be willful, but it could also be because the eyewitness was either misled or mistaken. Lineup examinations, in which witnesses are presented with a group of individuals and asked to identify the perpetrator of the witnessed crime, are an essential tool of the criminal justice system, but not perfect. Similarly imperfect is the human memory, especially as the time between a witnessed event and its corresponding trial increases.

“Another potential factor is false confessions,” Dr. Yan says. “A person may admit that they have done something when they have actually not done that. There are a host of psychological factors behind why that might be happening. In the past, there has been a wide and firm belief that if a person admits doing something, it must be true. But with the studies on memory errors and false confessions advancing, people are realizing that even confessions and admissions might be wrong.”

Wrongful convictions can also stem from the conduct of investigators and prosecutors. While this can, in some cases, be intentional—such as withholding evidence that appears to favor a defendant—it is more likely to stem from confirmation bias and tunnel vision.

“Tunnel vision is when the prosecutor or investigating officers get too fixated on pieces of evidence that are pointing to a particular defendant being guilty,” Dr. Yan says. “And that fixation can make them unintentionally unaware of pieces of evidence that are going the other way.”

Wrongful convictions that stem from a guilty plea come with some unique contributing factors and considerations, but they are no less important. In the US, over 95 percent of all convictions result from a guilty plea, and people do plead guilty to crimes they did not commit. It’s not uncommon for prosecutors to present defendants with a sentence they’ll recommend if the defendant pleads guilty, and compare it with a much harsher sentence they’ll pursue if the case goes to trial. In less serious crimes, the prosecutor may offer a sentence that spares the defendant from incarceration in exchange for a guilty plea.

“Some defendants may decide pleading guilty is in their best interest, because they don’t want to risk the harsher sentence at trial,” Dr. Yan says. “Another scenario, for individuals who have committed a relatively less serious crime, is they may be detained in jail before the trial, and then as part of a guilty plea agreement, the prosecutor may sentence them to time served, so they can be immediately released if they accept the deal. Some individuals choose to admit guilt and get out.”

The Impact of DNA Testing on Wrongful Convictions

DNA evidence has played a crucial role in exoneration in many of the most well-known wrongful conviction cases. First used in a criminal investigation in 1987, DNA profiling has not only impacted investigations after that date but also has been used retroactively in past cases where wrongful conviction claims have been made. The justice system is stronger for it: conclusive DNA evidence is practically irrefutable compared to the fractured memory of a single person.

“One of the biggest advantages of DNA evidence is everyone’s DNA is unique,” Dr. Yan says. “It has strong proving power in both directions: either linking someone to a crime or disconnecting them from a crime.”

According to the National Registry of Exonerations (NRE), approximately one in five exonerations have involved DNA evidence. That’s a highly significant figure, but not an overwhelming one, and DNA evidence isn’t a catchall solution to wrongful convictions. Some crimes simply don’t have DNA evidence. Resources for DNA collection and analysis are not infinite, which can result in significant delays in the presentation of DNA evidence for investigators. And DNA evidence can, like all other evidence, be mishandled by humans, who are still vulnerable to issues like tunnel vision or confirmation bias.

Addressing Wrongful Conviction

“There are a variety of ways to address the issues that lead to wrongful conviction,” Dr. Yan says. “But at the core, the most fundamental fact of wrongful conviction is this is a complicated phenomenon, as both intentional and unintentional errors are contributing to it.”

Dr. Yan separates the methods of addressing wrongful conviction into two areas of interest: the science and technology side, and the law and policy side. The science and technology side includes issues within investigation and trial, such as DNA evidence, confirmation bias, and eyewitness misidentification. The law and policy side focuses on how statutes and case laws either do or do not contribute to preventing wrongful conviction, such as the rules regulating interrogation, the exchange and presentation of evidence, and the admissibility of evidence.

“It would be helpful if new and aspiring criminal justice professionals were willing and able to cross intellectual borders,” Dr. Yan says. “To learn about both the law and the science.”

Elements of coordination between the two sides are already underway. Prosecutors are becoming increasingly aware of the underlying issues around wrongful conviction, and some have taken initiatives within their offices to combat them. These can take the form of conviction integrity units (CIUs) or conviction review units (CRUs), which serve as a sort of internal quality control branch for cases the office is currently handling and those it’s handled in the past. As of 2022, only 95 CIUs operate out of more than 2,300 prosecutor offices nationwide. Those CIUs, either alone or in cooperation with other groups, helped secure 60 percent of exonerations reported in the previous year (NRE 2022).

“Criminal justice professionals can contribute to the reduction of wrongful convictions on the prosecutor’s side in two ways,” Dr. Yan says. “One is to join a prosecutor’s office and help improve the quality of cases, particularly when there is a standalone conviction review or integrity unit. The other is to participate in local prosecutor elections, and help elect prosecutors who prioritize integrity and are receptive to new developments in science.”

The Future of Wrongful Convictions

Wrongful conviction was not widely studied or talked about until the early 2000s or late 1990s, but today it enjoys more scholarly and policy attention than ever before. The number of exonerations remains in a clear uptrend. But whether this is a problem that’s getting better or worse is notoriously difficult to track: knowing precisely how many wrongful convictions there are is an inherent part of the problem of wrongful convictions.

However, the continued advancement of science and technology holds promise for reducing wrongful convictions. Better DNA analysis will be able to find conclusive results where previously only inconclusive results were possible. The proliferation of surveillance cameras in public places can often replace the spotty memory of eyewitnesses. And an increasing number of police departments adopting body cameras can also create a more objective body of evidence for investigators and trial participants. But all evidence, no matter how objective, still needs to be handled and judged by people, leaving it vulnerable to confirmation bias, tunnel vision, and other cognitive processes.

“I’m cautiously optimistic about the future of efforts addressing wrongful convictions,” Dr. Yan says. “There is a stronger awareness in society in general. But there’s still work to do.”

Additional Resources on Wrongful Conviction

If you’re interested in learning more about wrongful convictions, and how you can help advocate for those affected, check out some of the resources below.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Top Employers in Forensics: An NCIS Professional’s Perspective

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesTop Employers in Forensics: An NCIS Professional’s Perspective

It’s the variety of experience within our agent core that makes our agency strong.”

Erin Michaels, Assistant Special Agent in Charge, NCIS Office of Forensic Support

The Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) is the primary law enforcement agency for the United States Navy and Marine Corps. Comprising approximately 2,000 individuals, of whom more than 1,000 serve as Special Agents, NCIS operates in approximately 191 locations spread across more than 41 countries. Unique among US military criminal investigative organizations, it is a civilian-run agency: most NCIS agents are not active duty service members.

NCIS has a worldwide forward presence and is often the first federal law enforcement agency on the scene when US interests overseas are affected. Its Special Agents are among the most adept and resourceful law enforcement professionals operating today, taking on assignments across the globe. Even relatively junior agents are expected to handle various criminal, counterterrorism, and counterintelligence matters with equal skill.

Forensics courses through the blood of NCIS. From basic forensic training for Special Agents to crime scene processing by the Major Case Response Team (MCRT) to the advanced work of forensic consultants (FCs), the applications of forensic science range from the routine to the cutting edge.

If you’re interested in a dynamic and mission-driven workplace, then a career at NCIS might be right for you.

Forensic Pathways at NCIS

All NCIS Special Agents receive at least basic forensic training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC) in Glynco, Georgia. The standard course includes a two-week portion that covers crime scene examination.

Upon completion, junior agents can document scenes through notes, photos, and sketches. They will also be able to collect and process fingerprint and footwear impressions. And they’ll be able to perform basic evidence collection from a scene where firearms or blood stains were involved, understanding the potential for DNA collection and trace evidence utilization.

“If someone wants to go beyond basic forensic training, and become a part of our Major Case Response Team (MCRT), that typically happens early on in a career,” says Erin Michaels, Assistant Special Agent in Charge, NCIS Office of Forensic Support. “We want those agents coming in and getting exposure to what it means to actually work scenes outside of a training environment. NCIS expects you to be independent pretty quickly.”

The MCRT is a group of NCIS professionals tasked with processing crime scenes and collecting evidence. Over two dozen deployable MCRTs are stationed worldwide, ready to respond to death scenes and assist with the investigation of high-impact crimes. They collect or preserve evidence and send it back to the main Department of Defense (DOD) forensics lab, the US Army Criminal Investigations Laboratory (USACIL).

For those looking to join the MCRT, additional training is available at FLETC in areas like digital photography, or through two-week and seven-week advanced crime scene courses. NCIS also offers its own MCRT certification course and a newer, more advanced MCRT course on complex forensics techniques like 3D processing of impression evidence and using alternate light sources to look for biological samples. These courses upskill attendees while ensuring a standardized level of forensic skills across geographically diverse teams.

“We want everyone on our MCRTs, worldwide, trained to the same level and familiar with the same equipment and how to use it,” Michaels says. “We’re aiming for interoperability, so it’s seamless when agents transfer from one office to another.”

Those with some advanced forensic training and experience with the MCRT and other NCIS investigations can become Forensic Consultants (FCs). The FC provides MCRTs with advanced forensic support, working both on-scene and in a designated forensic workspace. They may superglue fume evidence or do advanced photography before sending evidence off for confirmation at a lab. They may also perform 3D laser scans, bloodstain documentation and analysis, or shooting incident reconstruction and analysis.

Over the last few years, NCIS has started a Forensic Associate program, which is essentially a collateral duty for special agents interested in becoming FCs in the future. The program allows them to work with FCs more regularly, and attend specialty training normally reserved for FCs, while gaining valuable experience in how NCIS conducts investigations. It’s meant to strengthen the training pipeline, from theory to practice.

“If we have a vacancy open up, we may have a Forensic Associate who is already trained and has knowledge of what the job entails,” Michaels says. “So they can slide into that position and hit the ground running.”

Typical Day at NCIS

The typical day at NCIS varies significantly. FCs work within their dedicated forensics role, while MCRT team members can work within any discipline NCIS offers, such as economic crimes, general crimes, or even counterintelligence or terrorism. Their work with the MCRT is a collateral duty.

“When a call comes in that we have a crime scene or death scene, the MCRT team members and the FC put down whatever they were working on, meet up at the scene or at a nearby location, and assemble their response equipment,” Michaels says.

The MCRT will start processing the scene by getting all the basic information they can from first responders and witness statements. They’ll do a walkthrough of the scene with a few people, so they can adequately organize the remainder of the response, calling for additional support if necessary. Then they’ll start working the scene, beginning with documentation through notes, sketches, photos, and, if merited, 3D laser scanning. The MCRT works the scene to fruition, processing and packaging the evidence.

“If it’s a more basic scene, we’ll take, on average, four hours,” Michaels says. “A more complex scene can last for several days, if not longer.”

Along with the MCRT, the FC will assist with basic scene processing and potentially perform more advanced analysis: advanced photography, laser scanning, blood stain documentation, or shooting incident documentation and analysis. Outside of the scene, the FC will assist in autopsy support and coordination, liaison with the medical examiner team, and potentially provide additional context such as death scene photos, family history, or medical background.

“After the scenes are completed, for cases that have a lot of evidence or have complex evidence, we’ll work hand in hand with the case agent to make sure there’s a good understanding of what items need to go to the lab and what analysis to ask for,” Michaels says. “In addition to that, we’ll write technical reports for any type of documentation or analysis that we would do at a scene.”

If there’s a forensic technique that the main DOD laboratory, USACIL, cannot complete in-house, FCs at NCIS will do research to find a specialty lab that can handle that type of processing. It could be a special toxicology lab that detects a unique drug, an expert in biomechanics who can analyze movements at the scene, or a lab that can determine whether a particular metal, fuel, or other material is the same as what’s listed in official specifications.

“The best FCs in our agency are those who have themselves gotten a great degree of investigative experience under their belt before making the transition over into the FC realm,” Michaels says. “It’s important to understand how investigations work, so that you can know how you can deftly integrate into an investigation to help the case agent get the best outcome, whether it’s just resolving a case, or for a case that’s actually going to prosecution.”

Unique Features of Life at NCIS

One of the things that makes life at NCIS unique is that Special Agents can delve into a wide variety of different focus areas. Certain specialties, like cyber, economics, or forensics, may require some additional advanced training, and may narrow one’s focus. But if someone is serving in a small or remote office—some NCIS agents take 12 to 18 month deployments aboard aircraft carriers—they’ll be exposed to all types of cases.

“In a deployed environment or on a carrier, you’re expected to be a jack-of-all-trades, and at least have cursory knowledge of all different types of areas,” Michaels says.

The basic requirement for employment at NCIS is a four-year degree. But a major in criminal justice is not a necessity. Sometimes, it’s even superfluous, as FLETC training generally covers the critical aspects of criminal justice and investigations. Instead, NCIS has begun to prioritize breadth and diversity, such as in applicants with language skills or cyber skills, which play a large part in increasing NCIS investigations.

“It’s the variety of experience within our agent core that makes our agency strong,” Michaels says.

NCIS has some other unique employment requirements: applicants will need to be able to pass a background check, pass a polygraph test, and obtain and maintain Top Secret clearance. But soft skills are important, too. Michaels points to people skills as crucial for conducting interviews, collecting information, and collaborating with foreign counterparts. Flexibility and troubleshooting are similarly valuable.

“Being able to figure things out on the fly is really important,” Michaels says. “If you’re stuck in a foreign country, for any number of reasons, you may need to talk your way onto the next flight home. If you’re in an austere environment, you may need to troubleshoot your equipment. In an overseas setting, things are constantly changing. You need independence and confidence in your decision-making ability to carry things out.”

The international nature of NCIS is what contributes to many of its unique challenges. But for those who work there, it’s also part of what’s so rewarding. Based on the mobility of services NCIS supports, agents are expected to do a Permanent Change of Station (PCS) every three to five years, roughly speaking. There are opportunities to live overseas for two to four years, to take shorter deployments of four to six months to take a rotation on an aircraft carrier. The combinations, and the possibilities, are practically endless.

“I’ve had the opportunity to travel to numerous countries abroad,” Michaels says. “Whether going in a capacity to give training, or to assist with working a scene, those are life-changing experiences that I never would have had otherwise, and being able to then bring that back, and add that to your life perspective—the exposure to other cultures, to those types of complex scenarios—is something you don’t get any other way.”

The Future of Forensic Science at NCIS

Forensic science is a rapidly evolving field, and NCIS stands at its cutting edge. Their forensic graphics program is virtually unrivaled. At NCIS, all FCs have access to laser scanners and some basic skills in using them for analysis and processing. The results can look and sound like science fiction.

“Most recently, we’ve developed photogrammetry capabilities, which is taking a series of flat photographs, and then using specialized software programs to essentially stitch them together and render 3D to-scale models,” Michaels says. “Those models can be used either for analysis or for use in a court of law.”

Forensic graphics specialists at NCIS have also developed software that collectively analyzes video and photos from various inputs to do 3D motion tracking. This recreates a scene from multiple cameras, cell phones, and angles, resolving multiple inputs into a single product. These advances in forensic graphics dovetail with advances in virtual reality, allowing witnesses to virtually walk through scenes either in support of their testimony or as part of their trial preparation.

The future of forensics at NCIS will include the continued expansion of forensics to nontraditional areas. Already, NCIS has begun to apply forensic science to economic crimes and areas of counterintelligence.

But as forensic science applications stretch outward, it’s also important for further standardization of procedures and training, which will allow for further interoperability not only within NCIS but with other agencies as well.

“The world is getting smaller and smaller,” Michaels says. “There are more joint bases where Army, Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps are interoperable, and it’s important for our investigative agencies to have that same level of interoperability. We’ve been working hand-in-hand over the last few years with Air Force OSI and Army CID to standardize our forensic capabilities.”

The future of forensic science at NCIS comes back to people. Recently, the agency has reopened its honors internship program, which runs on a semester basis. It’s currently in its first summer of offering paid internships, which is set to continue. Again, Michaels points to the value of diverse backgrounds and experiences, as NCIS is looking to hire people with a broad range of skill sets.

“I would encourage anyone who’s interested or thinks they’re interested in potential employment down the road with NCIS to first take the steps of becoming an intern and see what the agency is truly all about,” Michaels says. “I myself was an intern, and it certainly was formative, leading me down the career path I ended up taking.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Blockchain Forensics: How Investigators Track Cryptocurrencies

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesBlockchain Forensics: How Investigators Track Cryptocurrencies

“When we build a ten-foot wall, the bad guys show up with an eleven-foot ladder. It’s always going to be a challenge to understand the different ways that this new type of money can flow. But just in the last two or three years, we’ve come a long way in our capability to trace different types of transactions.”

Suzanne Lynch, Professor of Practice in Economic Crime, Utica University

Blockchain forensics is the art and science of tracking complex blockchain transactions, particularly those involving cryptocurrency. This area isn’t as niche as it used to be: over $20 billion was estimated to be laundered through the blockchain in 2022, a 68 percent increase over the year prior. Everyone with a smartphone now has access to the blockchain and the ability to send funds to anyone anywhere in the world.

Today’s financial investigators can no longer afford to ignore blockchain forensics. Blockchains provide a new angle of attack for scammers and fraudsters; they also offer myriad ways to obfuscate illicit transactions. But for those who know what to look for, blockchains provide a transparent and immutable record upon which one can begin to track the steps of the guilty and the innocent alike.

To learn more about the evolution of blockchain forensics and how investigators are using it, read on.

Meet the Expert: Professor Suzanne Lynch

Suzanne Lynch is a professor of practice in economic crime at Utica University. She holds a bachelor’s degree in criminal justice from Wayne State University and a master’s in economic crime management from Utica University. Lynch is also the director of the financial crime and compliance management programs at Utica University, and has previously served as the assistant executive director of The Economic Crime Institute.

Lynch has extensive experience in risk analysis, fraud control implementation, and investigations in the financial services industry. Formerly vice president for security and risk management at MasterCard Worldwide, she has held fraud management positions at Goldman Sachs and Comerica Bank.

Lynch has conducted numerous training sessions on fraud detection and investigations for both global law enforcement groups and financial institutions throughout the world. She was also responsible for a university partnership with the Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) and CipherTrace, an investigation and software company in financial investigations and blockchain forensics.

A Brief History of Blockchain Forensics

“Blockchain forensics is another way to follow the money,” Lynch says. “It’s become far easier over the years. Even though it’s encrypted, there’s a trail, and now we have some really unique software—like that developed by Chainalysis and CipherTrace—to help law enforcement and private sector investigators follow it.”

One of the biggest misconceptions about Bitcoin, the world’s largest cryptocurrency, is that its transactions are private. On the contrary, they’re completely transparent: each transaction is stored on a decentralized ledger, visible by anyone at any time. The misconception lies around identity.

When someone makes a transaction on a blockchain, it is attributed not to their name and physical address, but to their wallet’s public key (with Bitcoin, that’s a string of 34 alphanumeric characters). For years, investigators could tell when one wallet was transacting with another—they could even see how much was sent and how much remained in the account’s balance—but they could not associate wallets with individuals.

Things changed in 2013 when security researcher Sarah Meiklejohn published her paper “A Fistful of Bitcoins: Characterizing Payments Among Men with No Names.” In the paper, Meiklejohn and other researchers demonstrated ways to follow the money along a complex set of transactions until it arrived at a point associated with a particular person, organization, or address—typically via an exchange when trading cryptocurrency for cash.

Investigators could then subpoena the exchange for identifying information, associate the wallet with a single entity, and back-trace all transactions made throughout its history (Fraud Magazine 2023).

The State of Blockchain Forensics Today

Blockchain usage has changed tremendously since 2013. Today, most transactions occur not with Bitcoin, but on protocols like Ethereum, powered by smart contracts: self-executing code that functions like a futuristic version of a Rube-Goldberg machine, with a vending machine’s user interface. For legitimate users, this makes complex financial transactions cheaper, faster, safer, and more efficient; for illicit users, it provides several new and ingenious ways of hiding their footsteps.

“You’re still tracing assets, but it’s a murky world, with a confusing regulatory climate, and there’s still no single standard,” Lynch says.

One of the most popular privacy tools available on modern blockchains is what’s known as a mixer: a piece of self-executing code that helps users obscure the source, destination, and amount of their transaction by bundling it with several others and distributing it in small amounts at different intervals.

While many legitimate use cases exist for mixers, regulators are taking a tough stance, with the US Treasury sanctioning Tornado Cash, a popular mixer, in 2022. Authorities arrested the person who wrote the lines of code, Alexey Pertsev, but unlike with traditional websites, Tornado Cash has no operator, no manager, and no independent databases; the code itself cannot be shut down.

“It’s getting more complex, with added layers of technical difficulty,” Lynch says. “We’re seeing a convergence of financial crime and cybersecurity. They’re very much intertwined these days.”

Using Blockchain Forensics in Financial Investigations

Today, blockchain forensics is as complex as the transactions it traces. Chainalysis and CipherTrace remain industry leaders. But a whole crop of internet sleuths, small consultancies, and DIY tools are available to help investigators follow the digital money. Financial investigators and blockchain forensics may soon find themselves in a similar position as other investigators do with digital forensics.

“You need to know enough to be dangerous,” Lynch says. “I don’t expect new investigators to be skilled in the intricacies of encryption, but you need to know when certain tools are needed.”

Blockchain itself comes with tiers of understanding, from the basics of its infrastructure (DEXs, CEXs), to utilization of available tools (Nansen, Etherscan), to mastering the underlying code (Solidity).

At a very basic level, investigators should recognize the signs of when blockchain is involved: hardware wallets like Ledger and Keystone; seed phrases and private keys; centralized exchange accounts; hot wallets and software extensions like Metamask and TrustWallet. A generalized knowledge can help investigators know just enough to know when to call upon experts.

Lynch has worked with organizations like the Anti-Human Trafficking Intelligence Initiative and the Defenders League to use blockchain forensics for hunting down those who would engage in (and profit from) forms of exploitation. Cryptocurrency has sadly proven to be a staple of transnational crime and will likely continue to be, facilitating the movement of funds between illicit entities across borders and jurisdictions.

“This is global, and that’s where part of the challenges are,” Lynch says. “It doesn’t matter where someone is located.”

The Future of Blockchain Forensics

Blockchain is continuing to evolve. Cryptocurrencies like Zcash and Monero have been built with privacy as a priority. Other forms of zero-knowledge proofs—verifying transactions without revealing extraneous information to the rest of the blockchain—will further complicate forensic efforts. But many things look untraceable until, suddenly, they aren’t anymore.

“When we build a ten-foot wall, the bad guys show up with an eleven-foot ladder,” Lynch says. “It’s always going to be a challenge to understand the different ways that this new type of money can flow. But just in the last two or three years, we’ve come a long way in our capability to trace different types of transactions.”

Lynch sees the basics of blockchain forensics being integrated into more financial crime curriculums. She also sees technological advances in forensics keeping pace with criminals. But one of the most significant aids to the cause, she notes, has been a string of successful prosecutions, which provide case studies of how the bad guys got caught and lessons in how investigators can do the same.

“It sends a message,” Lynch says. “You can run, but you can’t hide.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

The Increasing Digitization of Investigations

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsThe Increasing Digitization of Investigations

Every aspect of the investigative process has been impacted by digitization in some way.”

Dr. Joshua Adams, Professor of Practice, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Arizona State University

As society has gotten more digital and high-tech, so have investigations. Digital forensics is an increasingly crucial aspect of evidence collection and analysis. Today, evidence exists in bits and bytes that can trace back to before the commission of any particular crime.

Investigators today need to be fluent in the way criminals think and operate. The declining use of cash has led to more traceable financial transactions if the investigator knows where to look. Remote and hybrid work setups have increased the number of channels available to fraudsters and the number of records of interactions between coworkers. As AI and VR enter the mainstream, investigators and forensics professionals must keep pace with modern investigations’ high-tech, multi-domain nature.

The digitization of investigations has been nothing short of revolutionary, but the human element remains. To learn more about the digitization of investigations, and what it means for forensics professionals and investigators, read on.

Meet the Expert: Joshua L. Adams, PhD

Dr. Joshua Adams is a professor of practice in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Arizona State University, where he also serves as the director of online graduate programs. He earned his master’s degree in forensic science from George Mason University and his PhD in criminal justice from Walden University.

Dr. Adams has 20 years of federal law enforcement experience, more than half of which has been in the conduct and/or supervision of felony-level criminal investigations for the US Army Criminal Investigation Division (Army CID) as a special agent/criminal investigator. His research interests center on criminal investigation and forensic science, particularly in rural policing, crime scene investigation, military policing, police legitimacy, police leadership, and organizational justice. He has published in The Qualitative Report, the Journal of Forensic Sciences, and the Journal of Forensic Identification.

Dr. Adams is a member of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners, the National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives, and Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Incorporated.

The Challenges of Digitized Investigations

“Every aspect of investigations has been impacted by digitization in some way,” Dr. Adams says. “The investigation and criminal lab processes have become increasingly more efficient and automated. And both forensic scientists and investigators have had to adapt and seek additional training as technology has evolved.”

The impacts of digitization have been both positive and negative. Investigators generally have much more evidence to select from: a suspect’s phone, or a victim’s, can provide an enormous amount of pertinent information. But that information takes time to extract, verify, and adjudicate.

“One of the effects of digitization is criminal investigations and scientific inquiries, in general, have been taking a little longer to adjudicate,” Dr. Adams says. “That could negatively impact both parties, the alleged offender and the victim.”

Automating and digitizing evidence collection and storage doesn’t exclude the need for more analog methods, either. Technology can fail. Anything plugged into a network can be hacked.

“We can’t lose the manual skills,” Dr. Adams says. “If someone breaks into an agency’s computer system and hijacks it utilizing ransomware, the show must go on. You have to revert to manual ways of logging in evidence and memorializing interviews.”

Today’s investigators need to be more skilled than ever. In addition to an understanding of the old school fundamentals that drive all investigation, they need to be able to fight crime with modern tools. Knowing how to perform a phone extraction rather than sending it to a forensics lab can save vital time. Understanding the technological landscape allows one to understand where critical clues could be hiding.

Thinking Human in a Digital World

“Even though we are becoming increasingly digitized, humans are the ones breaking the law, and humans are the ones investigating,” Dr. Adams says. “As humans, we always leave some part of ourselves somewhere.”

Dr. Adams points to Locard’s exchange principle—a fundamental tenet of forensic science—being as important today as it ever was. The principle states that every contact leaves a trace. And today, there are more points of contact, and more methods of detecting trace evidence, than ever before. Dr. Adams suggests that a perpetrator might remember to wipe their fingerprints off a gun, but will they remove the serial number? Will they be cognizant of the CCTV recording of the original gun purchase? In an age where so many devices are recording so much information at all times, evidence can be hidden everywhere.

Some human aspects, however, are less important today than they used to be. Eliciting confessions, for instance, no longer has the finality it once did. Juries and investigators are more sensitive to how information provided through interrogation can be tainted or influenced. Meanwhile, investigators have many other objective data points to collect evidence and potentially link suspects to crimes.

“Long gone are the days where a confession is the best evidence you can have,” Dr. Adams says. “Even if you have a confession, you’ll need plenty of corroborating evidence. You need to go beyond any reasonable doubt.”

The Future of Investigations

The digitization trend isn’t slowing down, and investigations will continue to get more digital and high-tech. Dr. Adams envisions new crime scene mapping technology to present highly accurate visualizations to jurors, even virtual walkthroughs. Virtual autopsies could further link the lab with the crime scene. Virtual reality headsets are already being utilized in the classroom, it’s possible they could be used in the courtroom next.

Today, most minds are focused on what AI can do in their field. But as Dr. Adams points out, AI’s been working in investigations for years now.

“AI has already found its way into investigations, and it will continue to do so,” Dr. Adams says. “A lot of people don’t realize that AI drives facial recognition software. A human can’t go through Facebook, Twitter, and the DMV system to look at 15,000 different faces in five seconds, while an algorithm can. But facial recognition software use is very controversial, and it’s not widely accepted in all geographic regions or in all courtrooms.”

The continued use of AI in investigations will require a mix of open-mindedness and discernment. But Dr. Adams expects AI to be leveraged in various investigative processes, from document verification to quality assurance. Indeed, AI may make an ideal partner in the lab, on the crime scene, and in the field. Both investigators and forensics professionals would be well advised to learn to get along with their new algorithmic coworkers.

“In the future, investigations will continue to involve multiple domains,” Dr. Adams says. “It’s going to take highly trained and motivated critical thinkers to catch tomorrow’s offenders.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Assessing the Quality of Forensic Evidence: Combating Racial Biases

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesAssessing the Quality of Forensic Evidence: Combating Racial Biases

Cognitive bias is largely implicit so just being aware of the problem isn’t enough to fix it right. No matter how aware you are, no matter how motivated you are to fix the problem, it does require some degree of procedural change and outside intervention to make sure that forensic labs are analyzing evidence in ways that minimize the risk of bias and error.”

Jeff Kukucka, PhD, Associate Professor of Psychology at Towson University

Racial bias during examinations of forensic evidence is problematic as it directly impacts the fairness and accuracy of criminal justice outcomes. There are well-documented instances where poor-quality forensic evidence has been used to convict innocent people because of assumptions unrelated to the evidence.

In fact, studies have found that the quality of forensic evidence is more likely to be misjudged when the subject of a criminal investigation is a person of color. This can lead to unfair convictions due to incorrect assessments. It is essential to address this problem and devise strategies to ensure that all accused individuals receive fair trials and access to reliable forensic evidence regardless of race or ethnicity.

“In more recent years, we’ve seen examples of forensic evidence being used to exonerate, but traditionally it’s been used more to investigate and to inculpate suspects,” explains Dr. Jeff Kukucka, associate professor of psychology at Towson University. “There’s been a lot of research on other causes of wrongful convictions and miscarriages of justice. Most notably, I witnessed that eyewitness misidentification is the most common cause of wrongful convictions. Psychologists have been studying those for 40 to 45 years. Another common cause of wrongful convictions is false confessions, which again, psychologists have been studying for 30 years or more.”

However, there is another large cause for wrongful convictions. “It wasn’t until maybe 15 years ago or so that psychologists started paying attention to the psychological causes of forensic science errors, which is actually the second most common cause of wrongful convictions. Over the past decade, in particular, we’ve realized that forensic science is not as foolproof as it looks on TV, and that those decisions and judgments are made by people and people are only as good as their brains are. And we know that people make mistakes,” says Dr. Kukucka. “However, we’ve increasingly discovered that those mistakes affect not only the living but also the deceased, which has huge ramifications for not just criminal investigations, but determinations of whether a crime was even committed at all.”

Most of the time, these mistakes are due to an unconscious bias versus overt racism. “The analogy that I often use to explain cognitive bias is that it’s a lot like sneezing. It’s something that we all do because our brain makes us do it. We do it for a good reason, and it’s not something we can just choose not to do. So we’re never going to completely eradicate it. But there are things we can do to make it less likely to happen or less severe when it does happen,” explains Dr. Kukucka.

“In forensic science, no amount of goodwill or willpower is going to make cognitive bias go away because we can’t override how our brain works. The more effective solution is to take preventative measures to keep it from happening in the first place. Akin to taking your allergy medicine, forensic scientists need to make sure that they don’t expose themselves to risk factors for bias.”

Thankfully, professionals like Dr. Kukucka are working hard to help change the field of forensic science to help remove as much bias as possible. “There’s a lot more subjectivity involved in forensic science than people would think. There’s a lot less scientific basis for some of the techniques. What we’re trying to do is find solutions that benefit everyone, and will help increase the general trust in forensics,” says Dr. Kukucka.

Meet the Expert: Jeff Kukucka PhD

Dr. Jeff Kukucka is an associate professor of psychology at Towson University. He graduated summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from Loyola College in Maryland, where he became involved in research on the causes and consequences of wrongful convictions. He then went on to earn his PhD in psychology and law from the CUNY Graduate Center.

His research focuses on decision-making, expertise, and forensic sciences. He has published numerous articles in journals such as Law & Human Behavior. In 2021 the Journal of Forensic Sciences published his paper on cognitive bias in forensic pathology decisions.

Cognitive Bias in Forensic Science

Cognitive bias is a mental shortcut that may lead people to inaccurate conclusions or judgments. These shortcuts are based on patterns of prior decision-making and beliefs, and can often lead to systematic errors in reasoning.

This phenomenon has been found to manifest itself in many areas, including forensic science: “To many people, bias is a very scary word because it implies misconduct, prejudice, or carelessness. But that’s not what psychologists mean when we use the word ‘cognitive bias.’ It’s something that affects us automatically and is a natural part of how our brains process information. Most of the time, it’s actually a very good thing because It helps us process information more quickly. But it can be problematic in situations where there is a right answer, and getting the wrong answer can carry devastating consequences, such as is the case in the forensic sciences,” explains Dr. Kukucka.

“The worst way that it can manifest itself is leading an examiner to see things that aren’t there. For example, if one forensic expert looks at a fingerprint, and decides that it matches a suspect, and a different fingerprint expert looks at the same fingerprint and decides that it doesn’t match the suspect, at least one of them has to be wrong,” posits Dr. Kukucka. “This has pretty clear implications for the administration of justice, and can result in either a wrongful acquittal or a wrongful conviction.”

Some members of the forensic science community have embraced cognitive bias more than others: “There are folks who are very progressive and want to attack the issue of bias head-on, and they understand the benefits of doing so. And then there are others who just continue to dig in their heels and insist that there’s no such thing as bias and that we’ve misrepresented what they do. In the medical community, there’s a lot of variability in terms of how much they recognize the potential for bias to impact their work. Unfortunately, forensic pathologists and medical examiners are consistently on the low end of that spectrum. But, I’m hopeful that we are making progress,” shares Dr. Kukucka.

Combating Bias in Forensic Science

There are many ways to tackle the problem of racial bias in forensic science: “The first step is to get forensic labs on board with this idea. You can’t fix a problem that you don’t acknowledge. Over the past decade, we have painstakingly been educating labs about this issue and making sure they understand that we’re not attacking their professionalism or their competency. What we’re doing is we’re trying to protect them from their own brains and make small but important and feasible changes that will hopefully enable them to make better judgments,” explains Dr. Kukucka.

However, this process does take buy-in and work. “Cognitive bias is largely implicit so just being aware of the problem isn’t enough to fix it right. No matter how aware you are, no matter how motivated you are to fix the problem, it does require some degree of procedural change and outside intervention to make sure that forensic labs are analyzing evidence in ways that minimize the risk of bias and error,” shares Dr. Kukucka.

“The first big push we have done is to make sure that forensic expert opinions are based only on what we would call task-relevant information, meaning if you’re a fingerprint expert, your opinion of the fingerprints should be based on the fingerprints, and you don’t need to know what the eyewitness said. If you’re a medical expert, your opinion of how a person dies should be based largely on their anatomy, you don’t need to know about this person’s criminal history.”

Limiting the information scientists get is a great start but there are other low-tech efforts and methods that can help remove bias well: “We need to make sure that examiners not only follow very careful and standardized processes, but they’re also very transparent about how they arrived at their decisions. All too often they’ll form an opinion but won’t provide any documentation or justification for their opinion. What we were pushing for is for them to be more thoughtful and transparent in terms of how exactly they arrived at the opinion so that it can be easier to evaluate whether that opinion is based on sound principles and sound methods and should be trusted,” notes Dr. Kukucka.

Because of the recent work done by researchers such as Dr. Kukucka, there have been incremental changes that are improving the reliability of this field while actively working to reduce incidental bias: “During the Derek Chauvin trial for the murder of George Floyd, the medical examiner who initially performed Mr. Floyd’s autopsy, Andy Baker, chief medical examiner of Hennepin County, was an expert witness for the prosecution. He was asked on the stand, ‘Did you watch Darnella Frazier’s cell phone video of Mr. Floyd’s death before you performed his autopsy?’ And Baker’s response was, ‘I deliberately chose not to watch the video before I did the autopsy because I didn’t want the video to bias my work,’” remembers Dr. Kukucka. “It was one of the first indications on a national scale that the work we have been doing for years had finally made a significant impact.”

While those actively working on removing their bias are being hailed, the opposite is also coming true: “Scientists who aren’t embracing this will eventually be scrutinized more. One example is Dr. David Fowler. He was the former chief medical examiner for the state of Maryland, and he testified as a defense expert at the Chauvin trial. He made some statements that were absolutely ludicrous and unjustifiable from a medical perspective, so much so that many of his colleagues wrote a letter to the Maryland Attorney General asking for his work to be reviewed for evidence of bias,” shares Dr. Kukucka. “So now we’re auditing all of the in-custody deaths that occurred during his tenure to see if there is evidence of bias in his work, which, if we find any, would be very discrediting.”

Kimmy Gustafson

Writer

What is Proteomics? Applications in Forensic Science

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesWhat is Proteomics? Applications in Forensic Science

It is important for students in this field to be ambitious. This is a new field for everyone, so students will need to decide on the project they want to work on and where they want to work on it. They have to set their objectives and find good mentors in this field who will help them perform their research and get to their final product.”

Renu Goel, PhD, is Director of the Northwestern Proteomics Core at Northwestern University

Proteomics is a rapidly growing field of science that offers exciting possibilities for understanding and managing disease. Scientists can better understand how diseases develop by studying the structure and function of proteins and their abundance and interactions in different types of cells. With this knowledge, they can create new strategies to diagnose and treat illnesses more effectively.

“The word ‘proteomics’ is the combination of the words ‘proteome’ plus ‘omics,’” says Dr. Renu Goel, director of the Northwestern Proteomics Core at Northwestern University. She explains that omics are various disciplines within the field of biology, including genomics, metabolics, or lipidomics. Proteom, on the other hand, is the entire complement of proteins that can be expressed in a cell or organism.

This field has existed since 1975, when the first proteins were isolated and mapped. This field has grown significantly over the past few decades, with researchers now able to use it to study genes and genomes, investigate how different proteins interact with each other and the roles they play within the body, and even uncover key information in mechanistic studies on tumor growth and metastasis.

There are many applications for this ever-evolving science, especially in forensics. Proteomics offers a promising new tool for forensic scientists that can provide crucial information to crack cases and bring justice to crime victims. While it can be more challenging to extract proteins versus DNA, the clues found in proteins can answer more questions than DNA can.

For example, with proteomics, scientists can analyze evidence for traces of drugs or other substances, discover connections between two or more people involved in a crime, and examine the surface deterioration of evidence to determine how long ago it was left at the scene.

Keep reading to learn from Dr. Goel more about proteomics, how it can be applied to forensic research, and how to get started in this field.

Meet the Expert: Renu Goel, PhD

Dr. Renu Goel is a renowned scientist with more than 15 years of experience in liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry-based proteomics, proteogenomics analysis, and quantitative peptide data. Her research group focuses on identifying pathways or proteins involved in disease biomarkers for better diagnosis and treatment of diseases. She has extensive experience in academia as well as working in the industry.

Dr. Goel is currently the director of the Northwestern Proteomics Core at Northwestern University in Chicago, IL. She holds a bachelor’s in Ayurvedic medicine and surgery from Maharishi Dayanand University, a master’s in technology in biotechnology from IASE Deemed University, and a PhD in biotechnology at Kuvempu University.

The Study of Proteomics

Proteomics is a complex field that requires specialist knowledge and training. It involves mass spectrometry, chromatography, and protein sequencing to analyze biological samples and identify the proteins present. As with any scientific field, understanding proteomics takes a lot of time, but the potential discoveries make it an exciting area of research.

At Northwestern, Dr. Goel and her team focus on biomarkers and learning how to use those to distinguish proteins: “We use five to six mass spectrometers with high sensitivity and resolution. We get samples from all over the world that we use to do both qualitative and quantitative analysis,” she shares. “For quantitative analysis, I want to know the number of proteins in that particular cell or in particular species, but in qualitative analysis, I am comparing X versus Y. For example, normal tissue versus cancer tissue.”

By doing these two kinds of analysis, Dr. Goel can track disease and whether a particular treatment works. “In our samples, we can see if the pattern of the proteins is up and down in particular pathways in given species. By looking at that, we can tell you what the progression of the disease is and if this treatment has not worked, and how well it has worked,” she says. For example, with these techniques, researchers can tell if a patient’s breast cancer is progressing, what stage it is at, and if the drug they are taking reduces the number of cancer cells. They can even tell if the protein responsible for the progression of the disease is decreasing or not to determine the efficacy of a treatment.

Other advancements in this field include the Human Proteoform Project, an ambitious international collaborative effort led by the non-profit Consortium for Top-Down Proteomics. This project aims to develop and apply powerful new technologies to map out what proteins are created from the body’s 20,300 human genes. This will revolutionize the understanding of human health and disease, providing foundational knowledge for the biological complexes and networks that control biology.

Applications in Forensic Science

Forensic science is no longer just about analyzing fingerprints or DNA. Proteomics is revolutionizing the way evidence is analyzed at crime scenes. By studying the proteins present in a sample and comparing them to other sources, scientists can identify the origin of biological material and determine an individual’s identity with remarkable accuracy.

With proteomics, evidence can be examined in new ways giving law enforcement the tools they need to seek justice. “With a blood sample of a person, whether it is dry or not, we can run and find out whether the protein pattern matches another sample,” says Dr. Goel. This can be extremely useful when no DNA is found, or the sample has degraded to where the DNA cannot be extracted. Also, proteins can disclose the type of tissue or fluid the same was in, whereas DNA will not.

For example, in 2014, a two-year-old died for unknown reasons in North Vancouver, British Columbia. The bruising on her body initially indicated that perhaps she had been harmed by her babysitter, but it didn’t completely match up. The babysitter kept exotic animals, so a biochemist from the University of British Columbia was called to examine the child’s blood and urine samples to identify toxins in the blood. The scientist examined the proteins in the samples, hoping to isolate one that didn’t belong. Ultimately, he successfully located nonhuman proteins that matched snake venom.

Further analysis suggested the protein came from a rattlesnake. DNA would not have been helpful in this case because, had it been present, it could have simply indicated that the child had come into contact with a snake, not that she had been bitten. The presence of the proteins in the blood proved that she had, in fact, been the victim of a snake bite.

How To Get Started In Proteomics

Because the field of proteomics is still relatively new, there are many opportunities for students and researchers to work on innovative and interesting projects.

To get started in this field, students will want to earn an undergraduate science degree in a field such as biology or chemistry that will help them prepare for their graduate studies. Studying at a school with a proteomics department, such as Northwestern Proteomics at Northwestern University or the Department of Molecular Medicine Proteomics at the University of South Florida, is ideal.

“It is important for students in this field to be ambitious. This is a new field for everyone, so students will need to decide on the project they want to work on and where they want to work on it,” encourages Dr. Goel. “They have to set their objectives and find good mentors in this field who will help them perform their research and get to their final product.”

Kimmy Gustafson

Writer

Student Loan Repayment for Forensics & CSI Degrees: What to Know

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesStudent Loan Repayment for Forensics & CSI Degrees: What to Know

Managing educational debt can be daunting for forensics & CSI graduates. Fortunately, numerous options are available to help ease the burden of student loan repayment—from federal programs to private lenders offering refinancing and consolidation plans. With this comprehensive guide on student loan repayment and forgiveness choices specifically tailored for forensic and crime scene investigation grads, they can make informed financial decisions to secure their future prosperity while minimizing the stress of paying back loans.

Fortunately, forensic science and CSI careers are in high demand. Due to the growing complexity and diversity of crime scenes, employers are increasingly seeking professionals with specialized knowledge and experience in forensics and CSI techniques.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), employment opportunities for forensic science technicians are projected to grow 11 percent from 2021 to 2031, adding 2,000 new jobs in the same period. In addition, forensic science technicians earn more than the national average for all occupations, with a median annual salary of $61,930 per year (BLS 2022).

Forensic scientists and CSIs are sought after by various industries, including law enforcement agencies, private investigation firms, medical labs, pharmaceutical companies, and even insurance companies. For example, the BLS shows the top employer of forensic science technicians is the local government (62 percent), followed by the state government (27 percent).

Multiple loan repayment and forgiveness options are available for forensic scientists and CSIs. Read on to learn more about student debt repayment and forgiveness programs for forensics and CSIs.

What Are Loan Forgiveness & Repayment Programs?

Loan forgiveness and repayment programs are a critical resource for college graduates struggling with loan payments. Sponsored by the office of Federal Student Aid (FSA) and non-profit organizations, loan forgiveness programs typically provide income-driven repayment plans that can be forgiven over time. In addition, some loan repayment plans require a commitment to public service, while others are based on income.

Loan forgiveness programs are one of loan borrowers’ most desirable debt repayment options. For example, the Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) program forgives loan borrowers’ balances after 120 payments, assuming specific criteria are met.

Additionally, loan borrowers may be able to adjust their minimum loan payments based on their income under loan repayment plans like the income-driven repayment (IDR) plan, which applies to four federal loan programs.

Loan forgiveness and repayment programs have been an essential lifeline for forensic scientists and CSIs burdened with educational debt. However, those considering loan forgiveness or repayment should weigh the benefits and potential costs by examining the criteria required to make an informed decision that works best for them.

Who Qualifies for Loan Forgiveness & Repayment Programs?

Qualifying for loan forgiveness and repayment programs depends on the type of loan and the associated program. In general, borrowers are expected to make regular payments on their loans and meet other criteria to be eligible for such a program.

Overarching qualifications mandated by federal student loan forgiveness and repayment programs include:

Being a U.S. citizen or legal resident with a valid Social Security number
Having borrowed federal student loans from an approved lender
Having completed at least 120 qualifying payments (10 years)
Employed full-time in an eligible job position
Not owing any back taxes
Meeting certain income requirements

For those with federal student loans, like PLUS Loans, it’s essential to understand the qualifications for loan forgiveness and repayment plans as they may differ from other types of student loans. Because qualifications can vary from program to program, borrowers should ask their lenders for more information about the specific requirements. Knowing which programs to take advantage of can help college graduates determine a repayment plan that best fits their current situation.

Benefits of Loan Forgiveness & Repayment Programs

Loan forgiveness and repayment plans provide numerous benefits for borrowers attempting to manage their student loan debt. These plans enable borrowers to:

Decrease their monthly payments
Reduce overall loan balances
Earn complete loan forgiveness
Remain in good standing with their lenders
Gain full control over their debt

By taking advantage of these options, borrowers can secure more financial freedom by eliminating high-interest payments and freeing up money to save and invest in the future.

In essence, utilizing loan forgiveness and repayment plans offers a better way to manage student loan debt while maintaining financial well-being.

Examples of Forensics & CSI Loan Forgiveness & Repayment Programs

As college education costs continue to rise, students are increasingly looking for ways to repay or have their loans forgiven entirely. The federal government offers several loan repayment and forgiveness programs to help highly educated professionals like forensics scientists and CSIs repay their student loans.

For those considering a career in forensic science or CSI (crime scene investigation), several student loan repayment and forgiveness are available at the federal level and through private lenders.

Here is an overview of some of the most popular programs and a federal program attracting forensic scientists.

Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) Program

The Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) Program is designed to make loan repayment more accessible for those in public service roles. It allows federal student loan debt to be forgiven if applicants meet the requirements of full-time, qualifying public service employment along with completing 120 qualifying payments on eligible loans. Every month counts towards achieving the eligibility goals. Toward the end of this period, applicants must submit the PSLF application to apply to have the remaining loan balances forgiven.

This program delivers peace of mind and financial support to those who could otherwise struggle to pay their student debts. The Public Service Loan Forgiveness Program is valuable for forensic scientists and CSIs working in public service industries, such as the local, state, and federal governments.

Income-Driven Repayment (IDR) Plans

Income-Driven Repayment (IDR) Plans are loan repayment options designed to assist borrowers struggling to make monthly payments. The four types of federal income-driven repayment programs offer different features, such as reduced payments and the possibility of loan forgiveness after a specified number of years. In addition, these services enable borrowers to pay an amount based on their income, which makes the repayment process more affordable and manageable.

Given its benefits, Income-Driven Repayment Plans are an excellent way for those who may find traditional student loan payment plans challenging to manage financially. By enrolling in an IDR Plan, individuals can stay current on their loans, reduce their overall loan burden, and even be eligible for forgiveness of loan balances due later.

National Institutes of Health (NIH) Loan Repayment Programs

National Institutes of Health (NIH) Loan Repayment Programs, in partnership with the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH) Loan Repayment Programs offers loan forgiveness for qualified forensic research scientists specializing in clinical, pediatric, and health disparities related to substance abuse use disorders. Once accepted, applicants are eligible for up to $50,000 yearly loan repayment for two years with the option of continuing for one year after the two years.

The NIDA program aims to attract early-career forensic pathologists or medical examiners with drug overdose research experience; addiction scientists working in drug development; or data scientists and computational neuroscientists focused on addictions.

Debt Consolidation: Federal Loans

Direct Consolidation Loans can be an effective debt relief solution for debtors with multiple federal loans. These loans allow borrowers to combine all their existing debt and convert them into one loan at a fixed interest rate. The extended repayment terms also help reduce the monthly payments, paving the way for opportunities such as Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) or income-driven repayment (IDR) plans.

Direct Consolidation Loans thus provide much-needed financial flexibility to debtors struggling to keep up with their debt obligations and potentially qualify for federal loan forgiveness.

Debt Consolidation: Private Loans

Private banks and lenders are an indispensable source of student debt for many college students, not just in the immediate term but also while repaying afterward. Debt consolidation offers a potential benefit to these debt holders as it enables the consolidation of multiple loans into one or fewer loans, potentially reducing interest rates and simplifying debt payments.

Nevertheless, it’s important to note that debt consolidation typically prolongs loan periods and increases total payments over the long run–highlighting the importance of debt management knowledge and wise financial decisions.

Other Options to Pay for Forensic & CSI Programs

Aspiring forensic scientists and crime scene investigators (CSI) have options beyond traditional loans to pay for their programs. Beyond loan forgiveness and repayment programs, here are other options to pay for forensic and CSI programs.

Scholarships: Widely available from universities, government agencies, professional organizations, and foundations of disciplines, such as forensic science
Grants: Federal and private gifts of money for educational purposes, such as the Pell Grant
Apprenticeship programs: Provide a free educational option in exchange for on-the-job training or employment
Employee benefits: Employers often provide tuition reimbursement plans for employees pursuing higher education, such as Chipotle, which offers 100 percent tuition coverage for specific online programs or $5,250 per year for others
Community college free or discounted tuition: May apply for students who live in and graduated high school in the same state; available in 23 states
Military personnel: May be eligible to access education benefits through the GI Bill

Rachel Drummond, MEd

Writer

Top Employers in Forensics: Four DEA Professionals’ Perspectives

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesTop Employers in Forensics: Four DEA Professionals’ Perspectives

“I’ve always believed in what I do. When I got in the DEA, and I was able to help on enforcement operations—whether in the field with portable instruments, or whether I went to a clandestine drug laboratory, or whether I testified—I felt like I was helping and giving back to the society I live in. It’s very rewarding.”

David Creelman, Program Manager and Chemist, DEA Office of Forensic Sciences

Established in 1973 to enforce the controlled substances laws of the US, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) keeps Americans safe from dangerous drugs and those who traffic them. In service of that mission, it’s a leading practitioner of several forensic subdisciplines, with its Office of Forensic Sciences providing expertise in friction ridge examination, forensic chemistry, and digital forensics. As subject matter experts, DEA’s forensic examiners are often called upon by other law enforcement, criminal justice, and intelligence agencies to offer their insight.

“When it comes to the science of controlled substances, we have a unique knowledge set that other agencies just don’t have,” says David Creelman, Program Manager and Chemist with the Office of Forensic Sciences at DEA. “They have to come here for that information. Whether it’s research or an enforcement operation, we partner with them and work with them.”

To work in forensics at the DEA is to work at the cutting edge of forensics. It also contributes to a safer, more just society. But this work environment has its own unique considerations, and it’s never too early for aspiring forensic examiners to start preparing. To learn more, read on.

Friction Ridge Forensics at DEA

Friction ridge forensics examines markings left by the unique patterns of a person’s fingerprints, palms, toes, and or heels. In a world full of digital clues, this physical component is as crucial as ever: it definitively links people to places, suspects to crimes, and identities to bodies.

At DEA, friction ridge examiners can work samples from start to finish. They develop the prints, do their own photography and image enhancement, perform comparisons and database searches, and write their final reports. They can also be called up to testify or to help on crime scenes or in clandestine laboratories.

“The examinations we do are very high stakes,” says Robin Ruth, the Associate Lab Director and Head of the Friction Ridge Program at DEA. “For some people, that’s a difficult thing to grapple with. It’s also incredibly rewarding though because you make that high-stakes decision knowing that you are assisting in an investigation, helping with the mission, and keeping people safe.”

Currently, there are only a small number of friction ridge examiners at DEA, but that’s set to change. DEA is moving its current cadre of friction ridge examiners to a new lab in the Northeastern US and will add in many new hires. They’re also developing an internal training program that will allow them to hire people with less experience and promote them upon program completion.

“I’m looking for people who have strong critical thinking skills,” Ruth says. “Obviously, organization and attention to detail are important. But I want people with scientific curiosity who are willing to challenge the status quo. I like to see that they can think a little differently. That’s critical right now for where my discipline is.”

Friction ridge examination is changing rapidly. Digital images are increasing in quality, prints can be captured more easily, and advances in imaging systems have made comparison easier. Examiners are able to pull more and more information out of each print.

At the same time, the FBI has updated its Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFS) to Next Generation Identification (NGI). The new system is faster and the algorithm is better, creating more efficient and accurate searches. In the future, increased automation, more intricate modeling of friction ridge prints, and statistical probabilistic comparisons could carry the trend further.

“For the discipline of friction ridge, this is a huge era of change,” Ruth says.

Forensic Chemistry at DEA

Drugs are chemicals, and that makes DEA’s forensic chemists a busy bunch. Most of their day involves analyzing evidence for the presence of controlled substances. The forensic chemist will pick up a submitted exhibit from the vault, analyze it on high-tech instrumentation, seal the exhibit back up, and then write a report. They’ll also get called to clandestine labs, go out to testify, and field requests from law enforcement and criminal justice partners to advise on some aspect of forensic chemistry.

“We’re in the instant gratification era,” says Tara Rossy, a Senior Forensic Chemist at DEA. “Everyone wants their answers yesterday.”

The work volume is large for DEA’s forensic chemists, partially due to the number of investigative partners they work with. But Rossy and her colleagues prioritize being a resource for others to tap into. DEA’s forensic chemists may lend their expertise about different chemicals found at a crime scene or provide intelligence around new compounds or safety issues they’ve seen trending.

“Some of the things that are most challenging are also the most rewarding,” Rossy says. “There are always new trends and drugs to keep up with, a compound that comes back as something you haven’t seen before. That turns into a miniature research project. But you get to figure out something new and help your law enforcement partners.”

Forensic chemistry is undergoing major changes in two different areas: first, in the field, with the agents; and second, in the lab, with the chemists themselves. Both are empowered by smaller, quicker, and more effective instrumentation.

In the field, small FTIR portables, Raman portables, and even some mass-spectrometers allow agents to collect samples and get preliminary results that can guide investigations. In the lab, new instrumentation takes up less space on the bench, allowing room for more tools and making analysis quicker and more effective.

“I’m very excited about DART, which is Direct Analysis in Real Time mass-spectrometry,” Rossy says. “We’ve been using it in this laboratory, and I believe all DEA laboratories should be using it now or very soon. It can give you results for your sample in under a minute. When I started 12 years ago, we didn’t have such fast instrumentation and couldn’t get results like that.”

Digital Forensics at DEA

Digital forensics is an increasingly important component of all modern investigations. At DEA, it’s no different. Early case assessment operates like a triage unit, with more junior-level examiners in charge of imaging the devices that come in and making copies of the hard drives. From there, the more senior staff will analyze those extracted images. Some digital forensics labs support all of DEA, requiring both travel and remote collaboration.

“Digital evidence is everywhere,” says Laura Olman, CFCE, a Senior Digital Forensic Examiner at DEA. “Fingerprints are everywhere. Chemistry is everywhere. It makes sense that we all have to collaborate.”

DEA’s digital forensics examiners primarily deal with phones, but they can also look at computers or pharmacy databases. Specialized groups may focus on something more niche: dark web, blockchain forensics, or a specific type of encryption.

“I’ve been doing forensics for ten years,” Olman says. “The thing that’s changed the most is the amount of data we’re seeing now. When I started, phones were only storing call logs and maybe some text messages. Now when I get a phone, I get the person’s whole life.”

Today’s digital forensic examiners are tasked with not only recovering a device’s data but also with how to filter and present it back to investigators, attorneys, and juries in a way that’s understandable and actionable. Within the haystack of GPS coordinates, internet searches, text messages, and emails, the needle of someone’s guilt or innocence could be hiding. In the future, increased automation could be key.

Digital forensics is also seeing a trend of training agents in the field to use some basic digital forensics tools. This empowers the agents to get results more quickly instead of sending in a phone for analysis; it also reduces the workload of DEA’s digital forensic examiners, allowing them to redirect resources towards more difficult problems, one of which is the strengthening and standardization of encryption on consumer devices.

“We can’t do some of the old kinds of forensics that we used to do because of that data being encrypted at rest now,” Olman says. “I think that a lot of the development and research is going to have to go into encryption and either reverse engineering it, or finding ways to get keys. It’s really hard to break encryption.”

Life at DEA as a Forensics Professional

Working as a forensic examiner at DEA has its own unique challenges. As a government agency, it can sometimes be slow and bureaucratic at a process level. It can also be strict: employment requirements are not as flexible as they might be in private sector placements.

“If you want to get hired, you don’t necessarily have to have a chemistry degree or forensics degree, but you do have to make sure you meet the DEA criteria for the credits in the classes we require,” Creelman says. “Whatever’s in the requirements, you need to answer it exactly the way it’s expressed.”

DEA also has requirements that go beyond educational or experiential achievements. Its drug use policy, while updated for modern times and changes in legalization status, still looks back several years on a candidate’s behavior.

Incoming employees will also need top-secret clearance, which requires a polygraph, a background check, and a series of interviews of the candidate’s friends and relatives. It can be intense. But the stakes are real.

“There’s a wall of pictures at headquarters that shows a number of people who have died from fentanyl use,” Ruth says. “Before I came to DEA, I don’t think I realized just how pervasive some of these issues are, but it’s very much part of my everyday reality at this point.”

Another important aspect of life at DEA as a forensics professional is the need for strong oral communication. Forget any antiquated image of an introverted scientist: today’s forensic examiners need to collaborate between and within departments, they need to communicate with agents in the field, and they need to be able to testify. Throughout, they need to be able to explain their thinking and describe complex ideas in terms that a layman could understand. Focusing on public speaking early on can pay big dividends down the road.

“When I was in college, I was a lab TA,” Rossy says. “When you’re a lab TA, you’re getting skills where you’re in charge of a class, explaining experiments, and trying to convert some of the terms to a layman. And you’re in charge of people, dealing with problems, making sure everything’s going smoothly. That helped me gain confidence in speaking publicly and also developed some of the skills I need to take on the cases I do at DEA.”

At DEA, hard work is part of the job, and it’s all in service of the mission. Every glassine envelope in evidence is one less that’s on the street. Each identified print is one step closer to closure. An unencrypted clue can make or break a case.

“I’ve always believed in what I do,” Creelman says. “When I got in the DEA and I was able to help on enforcement operations—whether in the field with portable instruments, or whether I went to a clandestine drug laboratory, or whether I testified—I felt like I was helping and giving back to the society I live in. It’s very rewarding.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Follow the Money: Cryptocurrency Fraud

Home Forensic Education Blog Follow the MoneyFollow the Money: Cryptocurrency Fraud

“If you’re in some kind of anti-fraud role, you are going to encounter some cryptocurrency or digital assets in the next couple of years. It’s not going away. The more familiar you are with it now, the better prepared you’ll be.”

Mason Wilder, CFE, Research Manager for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE)

Ask a room of investment professionals to define cryptocurrency fraud and at least one will tell you the term is redundant. The total amount of stolen cryptocurrency sits at over $46 billion in today’s value. But if you ask a room of forensics professionals to define cryptocurrency fraud, you’ll likely get a more serious and nuanced answer.

Sitting at the intersection of cybersecurity, cryptography, and fintech, cryptocurrency is a complex field for investigators. But it’s also an increasingly important one. Decentralized finance (DeFi) applications on the Ethereum protocol alone total over $25 billion, down from a peak of over $100 billion in late 2021. More privacy-minded protocols don’t make it easy to count, let alone track, transactions. Following digital money that doesn’t want to be found is an extremely challenging pursuit.

The 2022 ACFE Report to the Nations found that approximately 8 percent of occupational fraud cases involved cryptocurrency; of those cases, it was most commonly used for either bribery and kickback payments or for converting misappropriated assets. That percentage will increase. To learn more about the landscape of cryptocurrency fraud today and where it’s going read on.

Meet the Expert: Mason Wilder

Mason Wilder, CFE, is a research manager for the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE). In this role, he manages the creation and updates of ACFE materials for continuing professional education, works on research initiatives such as the Report to the Nations and benchmarking reports, conducts trainings, writes for all ACFE publications, and responds to member and media requests.

The Landscape of Cryptocurrency Fraud

The landscape of cryptocurrency fraud is both vast and diverse. It includes investment schemes, market manipulation, money laundering, bribery, smart contract hacks, and old-fashioned confidence scams. Part of the reason for its versatility in committing fraud is that cryptocurrency can often function similarly to fiat currency, but its innate complexity is an important factor, too.

“Fraudsters love complexity,” Wilder says. “It gives them an opportunity to embellish and mislead people and hide in confusion and uncertainty. Combine that with a fear of missing out, and it’s very fertile ground for fraud.”

Cryptocurrency has the peculiar property of being both extremely transparent and extremely opaque. Broadly speaking, blockchains are immutable public ledgers with records of their transactions publicly available to whoever chooses to access them. However, nothing in cryptocurrency is quite that simple, and sophisticated fraudsters are adept at masking the path of illicit funds between different wallets, protocols, tokens, and exchanges.

“It’s a game of cat and mouse,” Wilder says. “For a long time, sophisticated criminals who knew their way around crypto were many steps ahead. But I would say that’s not the case anymore. Law enforcement is catching up.”

Case Study: The Collapse of FTX

The fall of FTX, a major cryptocurrency exchange, made the front page of most mainstream news outlets. While the event is still under investigation, certain facts are not in dispute: individuals at or associated with FTX gambled with the money and assets of FTX customers. Approximately $8 billion was lost, stolen, or remains otherwise unaccounted for.

The head of FTX, Sam Bankman-Fried, was charged with fraud by the SEC, but was this cryptocurrency fraud, technically speaking? Customers willingly trusted FTX with their money and cryptocurrency rather than guiding it themselves. Ironically, the first debts FTX repaid during the collapse were to lenders who had used cryptocurrency’s system of trustless smart contracts.

“As far as we can tell at this point, none of the initial fraud at FTX had anything to do with cryptocurrency other than the fact that that’s the industry in which the company operated,” Wilder says. “There was commingling of investor funds, a lack of internal controls, and a violation of trust, but nothing specific to the technology of cryptocurrency.”

The FTX case still offers important lessons for new and aspiring investigators. Indeed, when FTX’s new management team came in after the collapse, they hired forensic investigators to track down missing funds, much of which was stored or moved via blockchain. Liquidators were tasked with consolidating some of FTX’s remaining cryptocurrency assets, including those of FTX’s investment arm, Alameda Research. Crypto analysts watched as those liquidators accidentally gave away $72,000 worth of bitcoin with the click of a button.

“The irreversible nature of cryptocurrency transactions is a significant factor in investigations,” Wilder says. “Whether it’s a fraudster taking someone’s money or an investigator attempting to recover those funds after they’ve been discovered, the stakes are higher in the cryptocurrency world.”

How Investigators Fight Cryptocurrency Fraud

At the least, today’s investigators and fraud examiners need to understand the basics of cryptocurrency. That means knowing the names of top exchanges, understanding the difference between major blockchain protocols, and recognizing the operational pieces of a decentralized system.

Simple steps like buying a small amount of cryptocurrency, sending and receiving it, and following along on a block explorer can give new investigators a starting idea of the landscape in which cryptocurrency fraud operates. Even limited practical experience can help them know what to look for and recognize clues as to whether cryptocurrency is involved in a case they’re investigating. But it won’t be enough to catch a sophisticated fraudster.

“I strongly recommend that people understand where their limitations are with cryptocurrency investigation,” Wilder says. “Most criminals that use cryptocurrency know what they’re doing, and they’re not going to make things simple. They’re going to use many different wallets and exchanges. They’re going to use tumblers and mixers and privacy coins. You can’t cut through all that without some sophisticated tools and an understanding of how to use them.”

Cryptocurrency is a sector ideally suited to open-source intelligence (OSINT): blockchains are, a vast majority of the time, focused on the power of their own transparency. Building off this, investigators can turn to tools like Breadcrumbs and Nansen, and organizations like Chainalysis and CypherTrace, for assistance. And the anonymous world of on-chain sleuths can offer some of the best investigative finds in the industry, even tracking down the convoluted steps of nation-state cybercriminals.

“Over the last few years, law enforcement and private sector investigators have really started to catch up,” Wilder says. “Many tools are in continuous stages of evolution and development to help cut through some of the obfuscation and trace transactions.”

Tracking cryptocurrency is one thing, but recovery is quite another. Unlike in traditional finance, there is often no third party custodying those funds, and thus no one to compel to release them. If a suspect is unwilling or unable to provide the private cryptographic keys to those funds, then they may remain inaccessible in perpetuity, or at least until a future development provides another option.

The Future of Cryptocurrency Fraud

Cryptocurrency will continue to endure large fluctuations in its financial value, but the sector is here to stay. In the last few years, institutional investment has increased significantly. Traditional banks allow customers to hold assets like Bitcoin as part of their retirement portfolio. Regular consumers can purchase shares in a Bitcoin ETF. As the language and technology around cryptocurrency continue to insinuate themselves into the mainstream, investigators and fraud specialists must be prepared.

“In the future, more organizations are going to be accepting cryptocurrency payments and transacting in cryptocurrencies,” Wilder says. “More organizations are going to be holding digital assets as part of their overall asset portfolio. Anti-fraud programs have to take that into consideration and make sure anti-fraud controls and programs are updated to account for and mitigate specific cryptocurrency risks alongside traditional fraud risks.”

When cryptocurrency is involved in a case of fraud, it immediately changes the parameters of the investigation. Following the money often becomes more difficult, but that doesn’t mean it’s impossible. What was once the Wild West is rapidly becoming a well-trafficked part of the broader fraud landscape.

“If you’re in some kind of anti-fraud role, you are going to encounter some cryptocurrency or digital assets in the next couple of years,” Wilder says. “It’s not going away. The more familiar you are with it now, the better prepared you’ll be.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Gift Guide for Lovers of True Crime

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesGift Guide for Lovers of True Crime

Everyone either has that one friend or is that one friend who loves true crime. True crime is ubiquitous and popular for several reasons. First, it is shocking and disturbing, making it addictive to watch or read. Second, true crime stories often have complex and fascinating characters who are easy to become invested in. Finally, true crime narratives offer the promise of understanding the dark side of human nature and gaining insight into criminal minds’ workings. True crime is consumed in many forms: books, podcasts, documentaries, movies, clothing, accessories, and more.

Fortunately, there’s no shortage of true crime gift ideas. Gifts range from practical and silly to informative and interactive and take the form of knickknacks, clothing, stickers, books, subscriptions, and useful tools. Whether you love it or hate the genre, friends and family of true crime lovers have plenty of ways to say “I see you” with the perfect gift.

If you have a friend or loved one obsessed with all things true crime, the biggest mystery may be knowing what to get them for birthdays or the holidays. Here is a gift guide for lovers of true crime.

Gifts for Lovers of True Crime Under $20

Some of the best gifts are relatively cheap and cheerful. These simple gifts are budget-friendly and are a great way to show the true crime lover in your life that you care if they live or die.

Etsy has no shortage of customized t-shirts, mugs, and stickers, including WildOakStickers selling the “anxious, stressed, and true crime obsessed vinyl sticker.

For friends who like cerebral games, True Crime Puzzles gives a variety of verbal, logical, memory, and visual puzzles to solve.

Practical jokesters will enjoy Crime Scene Evidence Tape, which goes well with Evidence Bags, enabling them to bring their lunch or travel accessories in paper or plastic.

Subscription-Based Gifts for Lovers of True Crime

Subscriptions are experiences that sell tangible or intangible items. Examples of tangible subscriptions are packages you receive in the mail, while intangible things like podcast subscriptions may unlock ad-free listening and other bonus features. In addition, some podcasts combine intangible and small tangible gifts.

For the armchair detective, consider a subscription to a true crime podcast like My Favorite Murder Annual Fan Cult Membership, which has millions of downloads each month and is famous for its tagline: “Stay sexy and don’t get murdered.”

The two podcast hosts, Karen Kilgariff and Georgia Hardstark tour globally, so for the “Murderino” fan in your life, buying tickets for one of their live shows is also a great gift idea. In addition, a subscription to the Fan Cult Membership provides expanded bonus listening content, a pair of socks, and a lapel pin so members can spot one another in public.

Hunt a Killer provides a tangible interactive mystery box and membership. If you or your true crime lover friend is the type of person who loves a good mystery, then this box is the perfect gift. Subscribers are given six months to solve a case of a serial killer based in a fictional town.

The Hunt for a Killer kit comes with several pieces of evidence, tips, police reports, and newspaper clippings, and you must use them all to find the serial killer behind the murders. In addition, you receive a detective’s notebook to write down any theories or ideas as they do in real-life episodes of the serial killer shows we enjoy watching. By the sixth box, you should have enough information to identify and capture the criminal without mistakes. There are six boxes in total, so you can try to prepare by watching some true crime documentaries on Netflix.

Madmen & Heroes is a monthly subscription puzzle adventure where you disentangle mysteries, riddles, ciphers, and all manner of perplexing enigmas. Great for adults and kids, subscribers pick one or more narratives, receive monthly puzzles, and decode mysteries based on real-life resistance or folklore stories. After each box, you’ll be rewarded with additional information about historical or folkloric events relating to the issues you solved!

Books for Lovers of True Crime

The true crime genre is limited to itself. There is plenty of cross-over into classics, international, women, underdog, and serial killers, which are detailed below.

Starting with the classics, for those who like to get their hands dirty, several books delve into famous cold cases. In Cold Blood by Truman Capote is a classic of the genre.

True crime lover’s who prefer to go international, no collection is complete without a copy of The Hare with Amber Eyes by Edmund de Waal. This beautifully written book tells the story of de Waal’s family history through the lens of a set of Japanese netsuke carvings that have been passed down through the generations. It’s a fascinating read that provides insights not only into the nature of crime, but also into human nature itself.

Those who prefer to read stories about women will enjoy Confident Women: Swindlers, Grifters, and Shapeshifters of the Feminine Persuasion by Tori Telfer and The Good Girls: An Ordinary Killing by Sonia Faleiro.

Serial killers stand alone as a book genre and offer history, autobiographies, and recipes of all things. The Serial Killer Cookbook: True Crime Trivia and Disturbingly Delicious Last Meals from Death Row’s Most Infamous Killers and Murders by Ashley Lecker. Helen Morrison’s My Life Among the Serial Killers provides a more recent firsthand account of working with some of America’s most notorious murderers. And for a lighter read, Serial Killer Trivia: Fascinating Facts and Disturbing Details That Will Freak You the F*ck Out for those who want to live dangerously through the printed page.

Tools for Lovers of True Crime

True crime lovers may eventually graduate from enthusiasts to amateurs or professionals. Here are some tools for true crime lovers to support them in this inevitable crossover.

True crime lovers who need more security and Addalock Portable Door Lock provides peace of mind. Addalock is the original portable door lock used on most hinged and swinging doors inwards. Designed to add additional safety, security, and seclusion, the bolt or latch of the door lock does not have to fit through the hole of Addalock for it to keep a true crime lover safer from harm.

Old-school true crime fans may own a police scanner machine, but these days there’s an app for that. True crime lovers often want to know what’s happening on the streets of their city or residential area. While these apps that read radio frequencies shared by police, fire, and ambulance are free, they contain in-app purchases for more expanded and less advertising. Police scanner apps are available from the Apple Store and Google Play.

When a true crime fan considers converting their coffee nook into a forensic lab, you know things are getting serious. For science-oriented true crime lovers, consider investing in a forensic microscope. Some models offer simple magnified optics, while others offer 2D and 3D imaging.

Lastly, learning isn’t limited to college. Udemy offers nearly 20 forensic science courses that provide basic, intermediate, and advanced crime scene investigation training. Courses include forensic examinations of wounds and injuries, forensic microscopy, and fingerprinting.

Rachel Drummond, MEd

Writer

The Future of Cybersecurity: Five Predictions from an Expert

Home Forensic Education Blog InterviewsThe Future of Cybersecurity: Five Predictions from an Expert

Like many technologies in an adversarial environment, offensive and defensive AI tools will become locked in a technological arms race, the outcome of which is unknown.”

David Aucsmith, Senior Principal Research Scientist for the Applied Physics Laboratory

Welcome to the decade of cyberattacks. In 2020 alone, the monetary losses from cybercrime amounted to nearly a trillion dollars, which was equivalent to nearly a full percent of global GDP.

The trend isn’t slowing: a 2022 report by McKinsey forecast that the annual increase of costs related to cybercrime will reach $10.5 trillion in 2025; it also found there were over 3.5 million cybersecurity positions available worldwide, and small and midsize enterprises intended to increase IT security spending in 2023. Financial loss isn’t the only concern with cybercrime anymore, as malicious actors—both state-sponsored and independent—target key infrastructure sites with hacks.

In May 2021, President Biden signed Executive Order 14028, which focused on improving the nation’s cybersecurity. This was followed in January 2022 by a National Security Memorandum to improve the cybersecurity of the Department of Defense and intelligence community systems.

But the cyberattacks of the past aren’t necessarily the same as those we’ll face in the future: cybersecurity is a rapidly evolving field, with multiple attack vectors and increasingly complex hacks.

“When making any assessment of the ramifications of an unknown threat to cybersecurity, it is important to realize that cybersecurity is about identifying, preventing, and mitigating failures in either the fabric of cyberspace or the people who use it,” says David Aucsmith, senior principal research scientist for the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington. “The fabric of cyberspace includes the hardware, software, and algorithms that enable us to move bits about in a reliable and predictable way. The people, of course, have to interpret what they see and make informed decisions. Adversaries can attack both the fabric and the people, and both may fail.”

In such a dynamic industry, perhaps the only thing that can be predicted with relative certainty is that cybersecurity’s importance will continue to grow in the coming years. Still, there are emergent areas of significant influence that tomorrow’s cybersecurity professionals must be paying attention to today.

Read on to learn what the experts predict to be the top areas of importance in cybersecurity going forward.

Meet the Expert: David Aucsmith

David Aucsmith is the senior principal research scientist for the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington. He is a senior computer scientist and technology leader with more than 30 years of experience in industry, government, and academia.

Aucsmith’s current research interests include the security of cyber-physical systems. He has previously worked on secure computer systems, secure communications systems, security architecture, random number generation, cryptography and cryptographic systems, steganography (i.e., the practice of concealing a message within another message or physical object), and network intrusion detection.

Aucsmith is a former officer in the US Navy who has written extensively on cybercrime, cyberespionage, and cyberwarfare. He has also participated in cybersecurity advisory groups with several national entities, including the Defense Department, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, the FBI, and a Presidential Task Force.

Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI)

ML and AI are major trends in practically every industry, and cybersecurity is no different. But their adoption by cyber-attackers is likely to continue to have several profound effects on the cybersecurity industry as a whole.

As pointed out in the McKinsey report, the days of the lone cyber-attacker are largely over: today’s attackers are better funded and more sophisticated than ever before, and their adoption of ML and AI applications will continue to expedite and complicate cyberattacks.

“Developers are creating AI-based tools to defend against cyberattacks that can identify patterns and anomalies indicative of attacks,” Aucsmith says. “Conversely, attackers are developing AI tools to search for opportunities and vulnerabilities, and to conduct reconnaissance for future attacks. Like many technologies in an adversarial environment, offensive and defensive AI tools will become locked in a technological arms race, the outcome of which is unknown.”

Aucsmith also forecasts a greater emergence of what is known as adversarial AI: tools and processes used to disrupt the algorithms that guide AI-based applications already deployed in the real world. Adversarial attacks will “poison” or “contaminate” AI/ML models with either inaccurate or maliciously designed data to deceive them into making false predictions; they can also mask malicious content from passing through an algorithm’s filters.

In 2018, the Office of the Director of National Security report highlighted adversarial ML threats as one of the most pressing concerns, particularly in the area of computer vision algorithms. As self-driving cars enter the mainstream, the issue will only grow more important. Already, something as simple as a few strips of tape can cause a self-driving car to misread a stop sign as a speed limit sign.

“AI/ML application development today is in a similar position to computer operating system development in the 1990s,” Aucsmith says. “Back then, we developed operating systems without the expectation that anyone would intentionally attack or otherwise try to induce the systems to fail. We designed them for a benign environment. Writing ‘secure code’ as a concept was still a decade away. Similarly, we do not currently develop AI/ML systems assuming a hostile environment. We do not develop them with a threat model.”

Tomorrow’s cybersecurity professionals will need to develop mature AI/ML systems which are analyzable, verifiable, and designed with potential adversaries in mind.

Deep Fakes

In 2021, ten videos of Tom Cruise popped up on TikTok. In them, Cruise spoke and made gestures one would likely associate with the actor, but none of the videos were real: they were deep fakes generated by an AI company, and 61 percent of people couldn’t tell the difference.

The technology has come a startlingly long way in the last four years, becoming not only more convincing but also more widely available. It’s likely to only get better at imitating reality: most deep fakes are generated by pitting two AI systems against one another, refining a fake until it’s no longer detected as one.

“The emergence of consumer-available tools to create synthetic video and audio that is indistinguishable from actual real-world recorded audio and video is clearly a potential problem for society as it will become more and more difficult to distinguish truth from intentional manipulation,” Aucsmith says.

In cybersecurity, deep fakes have the potential to facilitate new and convincing phishing schemes. Phishing attacks are crude compared to more complex technical hacks, but they’re remarkably successful, Aucsmith notes. Targeting the social layer has been a reliable method for cyber-attackers, and deep fakes give them yet another method of doing so.

“Introducing deep fakes used to fool the user into thinking a trusted person has requested they make an erroneous decision is but a small leap from telephone scams and fake emails,” Aucsmith says. “The problem is that the people part of cyberspace is both the less reliable component and the most difficult to change. How people make trust decisions is rooted firmly in social interactions, and deep fakes have the potential to cause great confusion.”

Cryptojacking

Cryptojacking is a novel form of cyber-attack: instead of stealing data or impairing functionality, it steals computing power and repurposes it towards mining cryptocurrencies. Typically those cryptocurrencies are privacy-oriented coins like Zcash and Monero, which natively obfuscate their transaction histories.

The purpose of cryptojacking malware is to run in the background, undetected, while earning cryptocurrencies for malicious actors. According to Interpol, signs of cryptojacking include device slowdown, battery overheating, and increases in electricity and cloud computing costs.

Cryptojacking isn’t at its peak, currently. Part of that is because cryptocurrency isn’t in the midst of the mania it was in 2021; part of it is due to an industry-wide shift away from the proof-of-work consensus mechanism which mines blocks; and part of it is due to the programmed increase in the difficulty of mining blocks for those currencies which do continue to use proof-of-work. But cryptojacking will continue to be used as long as it is profitable and will also continue to adapt to the crypto landscape as a whole.

“While cryptojacking attacks are currently on the decline, they will remain or become a lucrative target,” Aucsmith says. “I do not see cryptojacking diminishing in the long term.”

Internet of Things (IOT) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Both IOT and SCADA systems function primarily to connect cyberspace to real-world objects. While that enables many practical benefits, it also opens up new attack vectors and widens the possible consequences of an attack.

In a SCADA attack, a cyber-connected pump or motor can be made to run faster than normal, or valves and switches may be turned on and off; the Stuxnet attack on the Natanz nuclear complex in Iran was a SCADA attack that damaged physical machinery.

An IOT attack may use sensors or other internet-connected devices as a point of attack; the Mirai Botnet utilized vulnerable IOT devices to create the largest distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack in history.

“Two factors contribute to increasing IOT/SCADA attacks,” Aucsmith says. “First, the sheer number and variety of devices and manufacturers guarantee some systems will always be vulnerable. Second, for people who truly wish to do harm, it is in the real world that actual harm can be done. This is also the domain where cyber warfare is most meaningful and cyber warfare is not going away.”

Attacks on Trust Systems

Aucsmith also predicts an increase in attacks on trust systems: things like X.509 certificates, two-factor authentication (2FA), and other forms of verification. People remain the weakest component of cyberspace and are more easily fooled than hardware and software. Social engineering takes that idea a step further, and views a user’s mind as another attack surface. Cybersecurity experts can upgrade their defenses all the like, but every end user can remain a vulnerable point of attack.

“The fabric of cyberspace will continually evolve to meet threats,” Aucsmith says. “But people have great difficulty changing in the same way. More and more, the surest way to attack something in cyberspace will be to fool the user into making a mistake.”

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Follow the Money: Expert Interview for International Fraud Awareness Week

Home Forensic Education Blog Follow the MoneyFollow the Money: Expert Interview for International Fraud Awareness Week

“There’s been a lot more emphasis on effectively incorporating open-source intelligence techniques into investigations. The potential applications of that are really only limited by your imagination because there’s just so much information available.”

Mason Wilder, CFE, Research Manager, Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE)

Fraud is big and getting bigger. Generally speaking, fraud is defined as actions that deceive for financial or personal gain—a category broad enough to include everything from lying about one’s age to masterminding a billion-dollar pyramid scheme.

In the business world, fraud is typically measured by its impact on the balance sheet: a 2022 report by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) estimated that the typical organization loses 5 percent of its revenue annually to fraud. That 5 percent can have serious effects, leading to layoffs, burned investors, and tarnished reputations. Fraud examiners are fighting back.

The biggest tool against fraud is awareness: organizations that provide fraud training see a 38 percent reduction in the median loss per instance of fraud. But those who fight fraud are, by default, in a reactive role, which can put them at a disadvantage. And while the basic fraud schemes haven’t changed much over the years (nor have the motives for committing them), the technologies enabling them have changed dramatically; fraud examiners and forensic professionals need to be constantly learning to keep up to date.

This year’s International Fraud Awareness Week takes place November 13-19, 2022. Hosted by the ACFE, it’s a time to promote anti-fraud awareness and education, and bolster the global effort to minimize the impact of fraud.

Read on to learn about the state of fraud examination today and where it’s all headed.

Meet the Expert: Mason Wilder, CFE

Emerging Trends in Fraud and Fraud Examination

“This is a field that’s always changing,” says Mason Wilder, CFE. “You have to be constantly learning in order to be an effective anti-fraud professional.”

One of the fundamental trends over the last few years is fraud getting more high-tech. Fraudsters are using new technology to adapt old schemes to new contexts, while anti-fraud professionals are using it to fight back.

Most of this tech isn’t a gadget, though: it’s data. For decades, fraudsters have sold people’s personal information on the dark web, but this illicit fraud economy has grown to include full-on tutorials, plug-and-play tools, and fraud-for-hire services. Fraud has become more accessible than ever.

“The pace of the evolution of fraud risks is not going to slow down any time soon,” Wilder says.

Another fundamental trend is the side effects of the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic has provided an opportunity for fraudsters to repackage old schemes in a new context, and at the same time, created challenges for anti-fraud professionals trying to do their jobs effectively from remote settings.

The former is nothing new: fraud often boils down to one of a handful of schemes that are hundreds of years old, just dressed up for new contexts and adapted to new technologies. But the latter is an acceleration of previous trends: as physical interaction becomes less common and interviews with suspects are conducted remotely, investigators rely less on confessions to make their case.

“Generally speaking, you’re not getting as much information virtually as you would in person,” Wilder says. “That limits the efficacy of investigative interviewing. But older theories on detecting deception through nonverbal behavior have also been called into question in recent years, along with inappropriate methodologies leading to coerced confessions. Today there’s more emphasis on doing a solid investigation and less of a focus on closing a case in the interview room.”

The Growing Role of Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT)

Perhaps the biggest paradigm shift in fraud investigations has been the rise of open-source intelligence (OSINT).

Generally speaking, OSINT is the collection and analysis of data from overt and publicly available sources to produce actionable intelligence. Consider it a summation of the other key trends in investigations: as more data streams become available, more information is shared, and more evidence is technically publicly available. In recent years, OSINT has increasingly become the go-to tool for anti-fraud professionals; Wilder teaches a two-day course in it for fraud examiners at the ACFE.

“When you get to that portion of an investigation where you’re trying to find any information freely available out there and make sense of it, it’s like putting together a jigsaw puzzle where you don’t have the picture on the box to work with,” Wilder says. “You’re just collecting all these pieces, these random pieces, one at a time. The more pieces you collect, the more you start to see how some fit together, and you get an idea of the bigger picture of things.”

The truth is out there, but it’s buried in a heap of data detritus: social media posts, emails, IP addresses, cookies, payment transactions, browser searches, DNS registrations, blockchain signatures, flight records, street view metadata, and website source codes all contribute to what is still an incomplete list. Each puzzle piece could just as easily be a red herring, too: anti-fraud professionals have to know where to look and how to verify what they find.

“The basics of OSINT are about identifying leads and guiding subsequent traditional investigation methods where you start getting court orders to get records or setting up interviews and understanding what documents to look for related to relevant individuals or entities,” Wilder says.

An investigator can go as deep into OSINT as their technical abilities and time budget allow. One could feasibly learn Python and set up bots to scrape web data, for example, but just as well recruit an expert to do the same. Practically every modern investigation includes some basic level of OSINT, if only to scan for red flags. Investigators can use OSINT to quickly and cheaply learn whether someone is paying their own property taxes, or check Google Street View to verify that the listed address of a business does indeed match the business described.

“If you aren’t incorporating some level of open-source intelligence into whatever kind of investigation you’re working on, then you’re really missing out,” Wilder says. “You’re potentially missing some crucial stuff that’s low risk and low cost to access. There’s no reason not to do some open-source intelligence in any and every investigation.”

It will vary based on one’s role and setting, but an expert anti-fraud professional will likely know the basics of OSINT: what public records are available and how to access them; how to filter and verify data; what investigative methods are legal (i.e., how to collect “private” data on social media sites); what DNS registrations and IP addresses are; how to find company ownership information; and some basic skills in how to use different search engines effectively.

“There’s been a lot more emphasis on effectively incorporating OSINT techniques into investigations,” Wilder says. “The potential applications of that are really only limited by your imagination because there’s just so much information available. Use your instincts and your investigative chops to put those pieces together and figure out what the big picture is.”

The Future of Fraud

“The same kind of fraud is always going to be taking place,” Wilder says. “It’s fundamentally the same, but adapted to new contexts, new technologies, and new mediums.”

The Covid-19 pandemic created a gold rush of fraud, and it’s possible that monkeypox and other fast-spreading diseases could provide a similar disguise for traditional fraud vehicles like phishing; deep-fakes, too, could play a role. Wilder also sees fraud expanding into the metaverse as technology matures further, and points to cryptocurrency and NFTs as platforms with high fraud potential.

For those in the know, that future is now: in August of this year, the US government put a decentralized application, Tornado Cash, on its sanctions list. Tornado Cash’s primary function is to obscure the movement of blockchain transactions, which are otherwise transparent for the most part. While it is operated by no single individual and simply exists as a self-running code, the US Treasury Department estimates that Tornado Cash has facilitated the laundering of over $7 billion since its launch in 2019. For fraud investigators, not knowing the basics of cryptocurrency and how it relates to fraud is becoming increasingly inexcusable.

“Fraud examiners need to know about cryptocurrency because it’s not going away,” Wilder says. “There will be ups and downs in digital asset valuations, but it’s here to stay, and we are seeing it increasingly used in fraud schemes.”

Blockchain forensics has made huge advances in the last few years. Despite the majority of transactions being publicly available, tracking wallets and tracing them to specific entities is still a sophisticated science. Not every fraud investigator needs to be well-versed in blockchain forensics, but they do need to know enough to know when to refer to an expert.

And even the most basic understanding of how blockchains are used can be a benefit: it’s important to be able to recognize the name of a cryptocurrency exchange on a bank statement, at the very least. But as with OSINT, it can go as deep as an investigator is willing to go.

“The most important thing for fraud examiners to do is stay up to date and keep their awareness at a high level about emerging technologies,” Wilder says. “Be attuned to the shifts in commerce and business operations, and really try to think like a fraudster for how traditional fraud schemes might be applied to new contexts. If you like learning and have an intellectual curiosity, those characteristics lend themselves well to the anti-fraud profession.”

Resources for International Fraud Awareness Week

To learn more about how today’s anti-fraud professionals are fighting back against fraud, check out some of the resources below.

Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE): The world’s largest anti-fraud organization and premier provider of anti-fraud training and education, ACFE has over 90,000 members and is committed to reducing fraud worldwide.
Fraud Magazine: An ACFE publication, Fraud Magazine puts out bimonthly issues that cover the top stories in fraud and fraud investigations.
Fraud Talk: A monthly podcast by the ACFE, Fraud Talk hosts industry experts to break down case studies and explore new research and best practices related to fighting fraud.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Cool Forensics & CSI Blogs

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesCool Forensics & CSI Blogs

Forensic science is fascinating. Mysteries are intriguing. So it’s no wonder that forensic science and crime scene investigation (CSI) are some of the most popular blog and podcasting topics.

Shows such as My Favorite Murder blend comedy with true crime, and its popularity has lept off the web pages and the airwaves to sold-out worldwide tours. But the genre spins off into personal safety; the women who host this podcast have written a book titled: Stay Sexy and Don’t Get Murdered, emphasizing the importance of women being intuitive, assertive, and hopefully avoiding falling prey to the horrific true crimes they profile.

Forensic science and criminal investigation aren’t just entertainment, though. They’re a necessary part of bringing criminals to justice. Without forensic scientists, toxicologists, or osteologists, thousands of crimes would go unsolved yearly. And, of course, these “after-the-fact” mysteries are magnetic – and network TV shows like CSI, Bones, and NCIS have the ratings to prove it.

But, instead of just watching fiction based on forensic science and crime scene investigation, the internet makes it possible to be on the crime scene with the investigators. Forensic science and CSI blogs are a great way to stay updated on the latest news and developments in the field. In addition, forensics blogs provide insights into forensics and criminal investigations that may not be accessible or summarized anywhere else.

The best blogs give a birds-eye view of what it’s like to be a crime scene investigator or forensic scientist. Here are several riveting CSI blogs that will provide unique insights and keep you up at night.

Featured Forensics Blogs

1. Forensic Magazine

Forensic Magazine focuses on three key areas of forensic science: crime scene investigation, crime lab work, and digital forensics. The blog is updated on all three fronts five times a week, using stories ripped from the headlines to highlight current practices and issues in forensic science and CSI.

2. The Chick and the Dead

Carla Valentine is a forensic science teacher, a practicing Anatomical Pathology Technologist (Mortician), and a famous blogger. She was a guest speaker on the Resident Evil 6 Real Crime: Real Fiction panel at the British Museum and the Wellcome Forensic Science Exhibition. Her blog boasts content about love, death, dismemberment, and how they all relate to forensic science. She is the author of the book, Past Mortems: Life & Death Behind Mortuary Doors, which details her decade of experience working in a mortuary.

3. Security Affairs

This website is dedicated to everything digital forensics, from hacking to cybersecurity. Every day, readers can get new information on the digital forensics front, often with headlines pulled straight from top-tier media. This site also touts an extensive research database on cyber threats, from international security spending to the most damaging cyberattacks of the year.

4. Powered by Osteons

Kristina Killgrove is a bioarchaeologist and professor at the University of West Florida. Her blog is about bones: specifically how scientists can use them to solve crimes. She picks apart the CSI crime drama Bones. She reveals how a true osteologist would solve each episode.

5. Bones Don’t Lie

Katy Meyers Emery is a PhD student at Michigan State University with a penchant for skeletons. Her blog is a mixture of anthropology, archaeology, and forensic osteology, but she calls herself a mortuary archaeologist. Her provocative blog talks about how she gleans information from the dead, primarily cultural and historical data.

6. CSIDDS

Dr. Michael Bowers is a dentist and forensic consultant in the U.S. and international court systems. His book, Forensic Testimony: Science, Law, and Expert Advice, received an Honorable Mention at the Association of American Publishers’ 2015 PROSE Awards. In addition, his blog highlights several themes relating to forensic science and CSI, including how to give expert forensic testimony and avoid forensic science malpractice.

7. Forensic Sciences Simplified

Funded by the U.S. Department of Justice, this website provides students with in-depth information about various CSI topics. Choose from mini-sites about things like footprinting, toxicology, documentation, or DNA testing. You can also download articles directly to an e-Reader for study on the go.

8. Rice University – CSI: Web Adventures

Although this site seems geared towards a younger crowd, its interactive gaming style masks advanced techniques for solving forensic science problems. For example, you can choose from five different CSI cases based on the popular TV show, ranging in difficulty from beginner to advanced. It also has a great list of forensic science resources sorted by category.

9. Strange Remains

Dolly Stolze is the mastermind behind this magnificently morbid blog. In addition to news about art, anatomy, and archaeology, Stolze has an entire section on Forensic Anthropology. These articles highlight news and investigations involving cold cases and long-dead victims whose cases were solved through Forensic Anthropology. It’s funny, dark, and engaging.

10. Volatility Labs

Focusing on digital forensics and incident response (DFIR), this blog focuses on information recovery and malware analysis with a downloadable tool, Volatility. This app and its blog have been publishing for 15 years and run an annual interactive contest for who can code a plugin for the tool.

In addition, the authors of this blog have written a book titled The Art of Memory Forensics, which covers how to use a computer’s RAM (random access memory) to solve digital forensics crimes.

11. Crime Scene Investigator

Run by Steven Staggs, the founder of the Crime Scene Investigator Network and retired former detective. Posts are categorized by crime scene response, evidence collection, crime scene evidence photography, and employment resources for pursuing a CSI career.

12. Forensic Files

Named after the hit series in the late-90s, Forensic Files blends entertainment with curiosity and true crime. The categories cover various topics, including cold blood, Jack the Ripper, Netflix, the Mendez Brothers, true crime podcasts, and more. The blog’s comments section is active, and updates are regularly posted when new information is revealed about a particular case.

13. Spy Museum Blog

A blog-turned-podcast, this content is hosted by Dr. Andrew Hammond, the International Spy Museum’s historian and curator. It covers a wide range of topics related to espionage and intelligence, providing readers with an inside look at the world of spying on display in person at the museum in Washington, D.C.

14. Defrosting Cold Cases

Hosted by true crime writer Alice De Sturler, Defrosting Cold Cases features a case of the month highlighting a homicide, missing person, unidentified person, new technology, or a wrongful conviction. With an academic background in law, the author writes about true crimes to shed light on unsolved cases and hopefully bring justice and closure to victims and their loved ones.

15. Forensic Focus

Since 2002, Forensic Focus has been educating the forensics community and, in 2022, emphasizes resources for digital forensics and e-discovery professionals.

In addition to blog posts, this website shares news, hosts a discussion forum, webinars, podcasts, and posts continuing education and job postings for digital forensics professionals.

16. Fraud Files Forensic Accounting Blog

Run by forensic accountant Tracy L. Coenen, CPA, CFF, MAFF, Fraud Files is a blog focusing on fraudulent financial transactions. She is the author of Lifestyle Analysis in Divorce Cases, which analyzes an individual’s living expenses against known income sources to determine if the reported income is sufficient to fund a lifestyle post-divorce.

Other blog posts include conviction updates and FAQ-style posts defining the basics of corporate fraud suspects.

Willow Dawn Becker

Writer

Willow is a blogger, parent, former educator and regular contributor to www.forensicscolleges.com/. When she's not writing about forensic science, you'll find her blogging about education online, or enjoying the beauty of Oregon.

Crime Prevention Month: Expert Interview & Advocacy Guide

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesCrime Prevention Month: Expert Interview & Advocacy Guide

Crime prevention cannot work without you. The importance of crime prevention comes from the involvement of the community working together with law enforcement and criminologists.”

Richard Arrington, CEO, Crime Prevention Center for Training and Services

Benjamin Franklin said that “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,” and this quote remains relevant, particularly regarding crime prevention. Not only does crime prevention help keep communities safe, but it also can save lives and save money. Crime prevention principles are implemented in many ways, but it takes everyone’s participation for robust crime prevention programs to work.

“Crime prevention cannot work without you. The importance of crime prevention comes from the involvement of the community working together with law enforcement and criminologists,” says Richard Arrington, chief executive officer for the Crime Prevention Center for Training and Services.

October is Crime Prevention Month and is about advocating for reducing crime and personal safety. Sponsored by the National Crime Prevention Council, this month is important to increase awareness with legislators, other decision-makers, and the general public to ensure that crime prevention continues to receive funding and support.

Continue reading to learn from a foremost expert in crime prevention on what it is, how it is implemented, and how to get involved with National Crime Prevention Month.

Meet The Expert: Richard Arrington

Rick Arrington is the chief executive officer, founder, and lead consultant/instructor of the Crime Prevention Center for Training and Services. He has over 26 years of experience in crime prevention in various capacities, including as a military policeman and for the City of Roanoke and the Virginia Police Department. He was first certified as a specialist in 1996. He was certified in the early 1990s in Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) at the University of Louisville, KY, National Crime Prevention Institute.

Mr. Arrington has published numerous articles on CPTED and other prevention applications in various trade periodicals. He was published twice in 2020 in Police Chief Magazine, and in 2021 in Police1 News.

What is Crime Prevention?

To understand why crime prevention is important, it is necessary first to understand what it is. “Crime prevention was defined in the 1970s at the National Crime Prevention Institute as the anticipation, recognition, and appraisal of crime risk and the initiation of some action to reduce or remove it,” says Mr. Arrington. “Once we identify what is likely to happen, we can apply all of the crime prevention strategies we have to prevent the crime before it ever happens.”

According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “prevention is the first imperative of justice.” They employ multiple strategies to help stop crime before it even starts, including working with government leadership, socio-economic development and inclusion, cooperation and partnerships between government agencies and the community, and increasing the knowledge base with proven practices.

Preventing crime has a wide array of benefits to individuals, communities, and the government. “First off, crime prevention is cheaper than the alternative,” shares Mr. Arrington. According to a 2021 survey by Vanderbilt University, the more than 120 million crimes committed in the US in 2017 created a financial impact of over $2.6 trillion.

Mr. Arrington continues, “Secondly, it is more acceptable to prevent something rather than punish it. It is just like going to a physician to prevent getting sick. Because when we do get sick, we end up with pain, ongoing problems, and a big bill. Crime prevention does the same thing as preventative medicine only on the criminology side of things.”

Crime Prevention Techniques

There are many different methods to approach crime prevention.

According to Mr. Arrington, “Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is one of the best methods because it addresses social interaction to make a space an unattractive target.” The International Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Association defines Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) as “a multi-disciplinary approach of crime prevention that uses urban and architectural design and the management of built and natural environments. CPTED strategies aim to reduce victimization, deter offender decisions that precede criminal acts, and build a sense of community among inhabitants so they can gain territorial control of areas, reduce crime, and minimize fear of crime.”

While it is often underutilized, CPTED can be relatively easy to implement. “One example is where we might redirect people using control access mechanisms such as shrubbery, lighting, and pathways to control the users of the space and direct them to where we want them to enter. Then the entry can be easily observed. So, we have taken a potential victim and moved them to a safer entry point, which makes it more difficult for the criminal to find them because they don’t want to be seen,” explains Mr. Arrington.

Other crime prevention techniques can be as simple as working with local citizens. “A great technique is community engagement. Community engagement is the process where the community is involved in solving crime problems,” shares Mr. Arrington. “It works because of trust that has been established between the community and law enforcement agencies. Law enforcement does have a part in it, but the community has a role to play as well.”

He continues, “One of the outcomes of a community engagement program is improved trust in the police. And once you enhance trust, you also enhance what I call a force multiplier. The community trusts the police enough to call, so they’re more likely to observe things happening and notify authorities knowing that it’s going to be handled appropriately.”

Get Involved with Crime Prevention Month

Crime prevention can be everyone’s responsibility, and getting involved with Crime Prevention Month is an excellent place to start: “Many law enforcement agencies have volunteer programs where you can specifically ask to volunteer in crime prevention. They will train you to do simple assessments, like home assessments for security,” encourages Mr. Arrington.

“There are other things you can do, such as start your own neighborhood watch. Law enforcement will come and train you and your community to do this. You can also get involved in your local government and ask them to do a crime prevention assessment of your neighborhood or community.”

However, when volunteering, it is important to know what you want to d to be the most useful and engaged. “I would tell anyone who’s going to volunteer to tell the department what you are specifically interested in doing. Don’t just say, I want to volunteer, because you may end up sorting papers, which might not be what you want to do. You want something that excites you,” Mr. Arrington suggests.

Another way to get involved with Crime Prevention Month is to get educated. Mr. Arrington recommends researching “the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing. They have a wealth of information about general crime and crime prevention through problem-solving.” Housed at Arizona State University, the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing covers all types of crimes, from gangs to robbery, misuse of police resources, and fraud. For each crime, they have aggregated resources and knowledge on how the police can reduce the harm caused by that crime.

If you or someone you know is a victim of crime, there are resources available to help. Contact your local police department or the National Center for Victims of Crime at 1-800-FYI-CALL for more information.

Kimmy Gustafson

Writer

National Cybersecurity Awareness Month 2022: An Expert’s Advocacy Guide

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesNational Cybersecurity Awareness Month 2022: An Expert’s Advocacy Guide

“If we are able to grow a diverse cybersecurity talent pipeline, and also empower everyday people with the knowledge they need to better identify, respond, and report cyberthreats, the future of the cybersecurity industry has the potential to be very, very bright.”

Lisa Plaggemier, Executive Director of the National Cyber Security Alliance

Cybersecurity has become one of the driving narratives of the 21st century. In recent years, cybercriminals have shut down critical national infrastructure, interfered with presidential elections, and held both companies and institutions for ransom. And a growing consumer dependence on interconnected digital technologies has increased the possible vectors of attack by several orders of magnitude.

The Biden Administration has made cybersecurity one of its top priorities. Through a bevy of public-private partnerships, cybersecurity is receiving more attention, more funding, and more resources than ever before. It’s a start. But meeting the nation’s goals on cybersecurity will also require a shift in the general public’s mindset to the point where best cybersecurity practices aren’t just the domain of tech-savvy professionals, but common sense.

October is National Cybersecurity Awareness Month. It’s a time to raise awareness around the importance of cybersecurity and ensure that Americans have all the resources they need to be safer and more secure online. It’s also an opportunity to highlight the essential role that today’s cybersecurity professionals play in making the online and offline worlds safer. Now in its 19th year, National Cybersecurity Awareness Month has never been more important.

To learn more about the state of cybersecurity today, and where it’s going, read on.

Meet the Expert: Lisa Plaggemier

Lisa Plaggemier is the Executive Director of the National Cyber Security Alliance (NCSA), where she has served as a board member since 2018. She has held several cybersecurity leadership roles, including Director of Security Culture, Risk, and Client Advocacy at CDK Global; Chief Evangelist at Infosec; and Chief Strategy Officer at MediaPro.

Plaggemier also developed the Certified Security Awareness Professional (CSAP) program, an industry-standard training and certification course in enterprise security awareness. Notably, she joined the advisory board of the 2021 US Cyber Games.

Please note that the following interview is from 2021.

The Impact of Covid-19 on Cybersecurity

The Covid-19 pandemic had a significant impact on the cybersecurity landscape. With many companies and organizations making quick pivots to remote-work arrangements, it was crucial that cybersecurity practices be adjusted to secure the sensitive information being stored and transmitted outside of traditional offices.

Some entities were more prepared for this than others: tech-native companies like Google had strong cybersecurity cultures to begin with, while legacy institutions like universities had to reinvent themselves practically overnight.

“Educational institutions did a great job of ramping up their digital learning channels during Covid-19,” Plaggemier says. “Unfortunately, in many instances, the cybersecurity of these channels often took a backseat, which has opened up opportunities for hackers. Compounding these vulnerabilities within the education sector is that only 45 percent of K-12 students receive regular cybersecurity awareness education. This has created a perfect storm for cybercriminals looking to gain access to the heaps of sensitive data that educational institutions have at their disposal.”

Turning the Tide in Cybersecurity

Today’s cyberattacks are increasingly sophisticated and more widespread than they have ever been. Cybercriminals don’t just target personal data anymore: they also affect critical infrastructure and national elections processes. A list of significant cyber incidents since 2006, compiled by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), extends to 73 pages. Between 2019 and 2020, the number of ransomware attacks increased 158 percent in North America alone. The best offense against these threats is a good defense.

“There is a large misunderstanding within the general population that there is nothing they can do to prevent cyberattacks and that breaches will just continue to happen regardless,” Plaggemier says. “But there are some really basic best practices that we all can use that could make a massive dent in cybercrime: things like using password managers with long, complex passphrases, enabling multi-factor authentication, and knowing how to recognize and report phishing emails.”

Human error is a major contributing cause in 95 percent of cyberattacks, meaning the vast majority of cyberattacks are preventable. Just as it’s said that every company is now also partly a tech company, every user of modern tech needs to be adept at applying the basic tenets of good cybersecurity.

“One of the foremost things that we can do to help turn the tables in favor of the ‘good guys’ is to change the prevailing messaging we have been using within the industry away from scare tactics and toward empowerment,” Plaggemier says. “For decades, as an industry, we have been trying to scare people into doing the right things instead of providing them with clear, easy-to-understand guidance around how they can help boost cybersecurity strength. Once we are able to make cybersecurity more accessible and cybersecurity hygiene just as routine as locking your front door, we will be in a much better place.”

Bridging the Talent Gap in Cybersecurity

Public awareness is one piece of the puzzle in boosting the nation’s cybersecurity. Bolstering the cybersecurity workforce is another. By the end of 2020, there was a need for an estimated three million qualified cybersecurity workers. This number seems to continue to grow. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022) projects that the need for information security analysts will rise another 35 percent between 2021 and 2031, making it one of the fastest-growing occupations in the US.

“There is tremendous work being done by the existing workforce, and tools innovation is as strong as it has ever been,” Plaggemier says. “However, with the cyber workforce stretched very thin, and tools only able to pick up so much slack, we need to keep pushing to find new ways to bring in the diverse talent the industry needs.”

Several companies and organizations have stepped up to help. The National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education (NICE), led by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), has created a program to help equip individuals interested in cyber careers with the resources and guidance they need. IBM has committed to training 30 million people in cybersecurity skills by 2030.

To do so, they have partnered with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Specialisterne Foundation, and six Historically Black Colleges & Universities (HBCUs) to provide no-cost STEM training and grow a more diverse cyber workforce. These and other initiatives aim to not only expand the cybersecurity workforce but also expand the definition of cybersecurity in the public’s mind.

“Another big misunderstanding about cybersecurity is that you need to be a math and coding lover to pursue a career in the space,” Plaggemier says. “In actuality, all you need to do is like to be a problem-solver and team player. From recruiting to training to coding, there is a job track within cybersecurity for everyone. Therefore, to find success in the field all you really need is a willingness to learn.”

The Future of Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity professionals have a tough mandate. As new types of hardware and software immediately create new vulnerabilities, cybersecurity has to keep pace. But cybersecurity professionals make careers out of staying ahead of the curve and tech giants are on board, too.

Spurred on by the Biden Administration, Google announced in 2021 that it would invest $10 billion over the next five years to expand Zero Trust programs, help secure the software supply chain, and enhance open-source security; Apple, Microsoft, and Amazon have all made their own cybersecurity pledges.

“One of the best things about the cybersecurity field is that it is always changing,” Plaggemier says. “I think eventually security will be more seamless and ‘invisible.’ The promise of technology like Zero Trust means we’ll be more secure without as much end-user friction as we have today.”

There will be more cyberattacks in the future, and they will continue to grow in sophistication. But the future of cybersecurity will not be written by cybercriminals. A current and coming generation of bright young minds has the potential to develop the tools and mindset needed to power a new paradigm in cybersecurity.

“If we are able to grow a diverse cybersecurity talent pipeline, and also empower everyday people with the knowledge they need to better identify, respond, and report cyberthreats, the future of the cybersecurity industry has the potential to be very, very bright,” Plaggemier says.

Resources for National Cybersecurity Awareness Month

Cybersecurity is a field practically as big as the internet itself. To learn more about the ways that it’s evolving, check out some of the resources below.

Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA): As the nation’s risk advisor, CISA works with partners to defend against today’s threats and build a more secure and resilient infrastructure for the future. Their STOP.THINK.CONNECT. campaign is aimed at increasing the understanding of cyber threats and empowering the American public to be safer and more secure online.
National Cyber Security Alliance (NCSA): Through public-private partnerships, NCSA encourages a culture of cybersecurity by empowering users at home, work, and school with the information they need to keep themselves safe and secure online. You can learn more about their cybersecurity education and career resources here.
National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education (NICE): Led by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the US Department of Commerce, NICE focuses on efforts to close the hiring gap in the cybersecurity workforce. They host this year’s Cybersecurity Career Awareness Week from October 17-22, 2022.
US Cyber Games: The US Cyber Games seeks to scout, recruit, and train a team of elite, high-aptitude cybersecurity athletes to collaborate and compete in global competitions like the International Cybersecurity Challenge (ICC). This year’s US Cyber Team Draft Day takes place October 17, 2022.
Be a Cybersecurity Awareness Month Champion: This Cybersecurity Awareness Month, organizations and individuals can become Champions to help promote a safer, more secure, and more trusted internet. By signing up to become a Cybersecurity Awareness Month Champion, you can receive a free toolkit with materials to help you implement cybersecurity awareness initiatives and activities during Cybersecurity Awareness Month.

Matt Zbrog

Writer

Do True Crime Stories & Citizen Sleuths Produce Crowdsourced Justice?

Home Forensic Education Blog ResourcesDo True Crime Stories & Citizen Sleuths Produce Crowdsourced Justice?

I do have hopes that some people who are interested in crowdsolving and citizen sleuthing will become engaged with trying to reform the system, and maybe even become those who work in the system.”

Dawn K. Cecil, PhD, Professor of Criminology at the University of South Florida

According to the FBI’s Crime Data Explorer, violent crime is at some of its lowest rates in recorded history. But the public’s appetite for stories about those crimes is more voracious than ever. Today’s true crime stories have not only captured the public’s imagination, but they’ve also impacted how investigations are conducted and how justice is dispensed—sometimes positively, and sometimes negatively.

By some accounts, the modern true crime era started in 2014 with the release of Serial, an award-winning investigative journalism podcast hosted by Sarah Koenig. Several more true crime stories in a similar vein would follow soon after, each reinvestigating a different crime.

Dawn K. Cecil, PhD, a professor of criminology at the University of South Florida and the author of Fear, Justice, and Modern True Crime, argues that this modern era of true crime is defined by three characteristics: bingeing, intimacy, and engagement.

It’s the engagement component that has given rise to crowdsourced justice and the trend of citizen sleuths: people who operate outside of the criminal justice system but independently contribute to investigations. These citizen sleuths seek out open source evidence, share their theories on social media, and can ultimately affect the outcome of a case.

“Citizen sleuths are not a new invention, but the modern true crime movement, media culture, and availability of information have combined to increase the popularity of citizen sleuthing,” Dr. Cecil says.

Citizen science, a cousin of citizen sleuthing, has served an important purpose in the scientific community, particularly in collecting evidence demonstrating climate change’s effects. Similarly, citizen sleuthing has the potential to offer tangible benefits to the traditional criminal justice system: avid true crime fans can volunteer their time to overburdened and budget-cut law enforcement agencies, helping to solve cold cases or overturn wrongful convictions.

But crowdsourced justice also has its pitfalls, and may even exacerbate some of the inequalities already present in the criminal justice system.

Below, we’ll take a look at three cases of true crime fueling crowdsourced justice, and then examine the top concerns associated with this trend.

Three Cases of True Crime Fueling Crowdsourced Justice

Serial

The pioneer of the modern true crime era, Serial’s first season, in 2014, re-examined the 1999 murder of Hae Min Lee and the subsequent conviction (and life sentencing) of her boyfriend, Adnan Masud Syed, for the crime.

Its episodes were downloaded over 68 million times in the first four months they were available and presented little-known evidence that cast the case in a new light, calling into question whether Syed was truly at fault and whether his trial had been completely fair. New books and documentaries about the case quickly followed, as did public pressure, and Syed’s appeals received popular support. Those appeals reached the highest court in Maryland, which concluded that Syed’s legal counsel had indeed been deficient, but did not warrant a new trial.

Your Own Backyard

In 2019, Your Own Backyard, a podcast hosted by Chris Lambert, investigated the disappearance of Kristin Smart, which occurred in 1996—while Smart’s body was never found, she was declared legally dead in 2002.

Downloaded over five million times in the first six months it was available, Your Own Backyard brought a surge of attention back to the case, and encouraged new witnesses to come forward. Law enforcement officers credited the podcast with leading to critical breaks in the case that ultimately led to the arrest of Michael Flores, a long-time suspect, for Smart’s murder.

Lambert, when interviewed, said that he considered his work in progressing the case to be one part of several, and that the actions of law enforcement and the legal system were essential.

The Murder Squad

The Murder Squad, a podcast hosted by Billy Jensen and Paul Holes, gives actual assignments to its listeners, in an instance of what Jensen called crowdsolving. And in 2019, an arrest was made in the murder of Helene Pruszynski, a 40-year-old cold case, thanks to DNA evidence submitted by a listener of The Murder Squad (Jensen and Holes had encouraged their listeners to submit DNA samples).

Continuing with the show’s meta-nature, that listener was then interviewed on the next episode of The Murder Squad. The podcast emphasized the power of citizen sleuthing, and while the suspect would eventually be found guilty, hosts of The Murder Squad announced that justice had been done before the suspect had even entered a plea.

The Challenges With True Crime’s Crowdsourced Justice

“Crowdsourcing efforts have been successful in helping with cases, and some are being run by professional investigators,” Dr. Cecil says. “But there are many potential issues with this trend. In some cases, it has become an industry for people to make money: you can pay to attend a crowdsourcing event and take part in the investigation. In general, when victimization is used to generate profit, in my opinion, we should question the ethics of this practice.”

True crime podcasts, books, shows, and documentaries are primarily created and sold as entertainment, which operates with a vastly different set of ethics than the criminal justice system: content creators may have good intentions, but media companies often are more concerned with pleasing their consumers and advertisers.

Privacy is a particular area of concern. In 2021, a victim’s family sued the producers of an upcoming film about their case, and in countless other instances, potential suspects have been harassed on social media for their proximity to a case covered in a true crime story.

“Investigating a case without those personally affected being aware is another ethical boundary that citizen sleuths might not consider,” Dr. Cecil says. “They may feel that they are doing the right thing, but they also might retraumatize those closely involved.”

Throughout history, law enforcement agencies have solicited the public for help in their investigations, via wanted posters, tip lines, and search parties. Today, they might have gotten more help than they’d like, with crowdsourced justice occasionally resembling mob mentality. Being interested in solving a crime doesn’t make someone good at solving a crime, and zealotry can do more harm than good.

Overeager listeners of true crime podcasts are not trained to conduct fair and thorough investigations; they’re trained to look for clues, and for deceit, even when there may be none. This effect has all the trappings of conspiracy theory: hidden truths are everywhere, and when you can’t uncover them, it’s because someone is purposely keeping them from you. If the world looks at every case as if it were an episode of a podcast or TV show, it’s not contributing to greater justice; it’s contributing to widespread psychosis. In 2021, internet sleuths were confidently calling out specific Facebook profiles as perpetrators of child murders—because of suspicion, not evidence—leading a local sheriff’s office to urgently ask their constituents, on Facebook, to stop before they ruined more people’s lives.

Crowdsourcing, in the abstract, is meant to bring together resources towards goals that have been unfairly under-resourced in the past. In that sense, one might hope that crowdsourced justice could correct for some historical inequalities in the criminal justice system, particularly those related to gender, race, and class—citizen sleuths could be able to access aspects of a case that are inaccessible to traditional law enforcement, or apply resources to exploring cases of potential wrongful conviction.

Unfortunately, however, there are more and more examples of true crime and crowdsourced justice reinforcing historical inequalities, rather than reducing them.

“From the crowdsourcing efforts that I am familiar with and based on characteristics of true crime and the true crime community, I would say that crowdsourcing does not help correct inequalities related to race, gender, and economics in the criminal justice system,” Dr. Cecil says. “True crime is known for over-representing white victims and women and girls as victims.”

The effect is so widespread, both in true crime and in the media, that it has its own term: Missing White Woman Syndrome. In 2021, when Gabby Petito went missing in Wyoming, the hashtag #GabbyPetito was viewed over 212 million times; she was white, blonde, and highly involved in social media. The news was a sensation, even though 710 cases of missing indigenous people had been reported in the state over the last decade—none of whom had garnered any significant media attention (let alone any crowdsourced justice). But crowdsourced justice, in the truest sense of the term, should correct for this over-representation, rather than perpetuate it.

When it comes to crowdsourced justice and citizen sleuthing, the genie is out of the bottle. As Dr. Cecil points out, this is not an industry that can be regulated—as long as there is curiosity and a free flow of information, it will continue to exist—but it can be better understood.

Experts have already begun to study the online communities and private citizens who participate in these types of citizen sleuthing and crowdsourced justice. Their findings will be valuable information for criminal justice professionals who find themselves more and more working side by side with the general public in their investigations.

“I do have hopes that some people who are interested in crowdsolving and citizen sleuthing will become engaged with trying to reform the system, and maybe even become those who work in the system,” Dr. Cecil says.

Matt Zbrog

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